Emissive polymers and devices incorporating these polymers

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a class of luminescent and conductive polymer compositions having chromophores, and particularly solid films of these compositions exhibiting increased luminescent lifetimes, quantum yields and amplified emissions. These desirable properties can be provided through polymers having rigid groups designed to prevent polymer reorganization, aggregation or π-stacking upon solidification. These polymers can also display an unusually high stability with respect to solvent and heat exposures. The invention also relates to a sensor and a method for sensing an analyte through the luminescent and conductive properties of these polymers. Analytes can be sensed by activation of a chromophore at a polymer surface. Analytes include aromatics such as heterocycles, phosphate ester groups and in particular explosives and chemical warfare agents in a gaseous state. The present invention also relates to devices and methods for amplifying emissions by incorporating a polymer having an energy migration pathway and/or providing the polymer as a block co-polymer or as a multi-layer.

RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/324,064, filed Dec. 18, 2002, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/305,379, filed May 5, 1999, now abandoned, which claims the benefit under Title 35, U.S.C. § 119(e) of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/084,247, filed May 5, 1998.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to a class of luminescent and conductive polymer compositions, and particularly solid films of these compositions exhibiting increased luminescent lifetimes, quantum yields and amplified emissions. The invention also relates to a sensor and a method for sensing an analyte through the luminescent and conductive properties of these polymers.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

There is a high demand for chemical sensor devices for detecting low concentration levels of analytes present in the liquid and gaseous phase. Specificity to particular analytes is also generally desired.

Chemical sensor devices often involve luminescent materials because luminescence lifetimes and intensities can be sensitive to the presence of external species or analytes. Fluorescent polymeric materials are particularly advantageous for sensor devices because the resulting fluorescence and other physical properties can be optimized and/or tailored for particular analytes through chemical structure changes of the polymer.

Charge conducting polymers are usually fluorescent polymers. Such polymers are capable of delocalizing charge throughout a substantial portion of the polymer by π-conjugation. The π-conjugated portion comprises a set of orbitals that can function as a valence band. The polymers can be doped with species that either donate or accept electron density, and an energy difference between the valence band and conduction band is referred to as a band gap. Moreover, other energy levels may be available in the band gap or in higher energy levels having antibonding character.

Because charge delocalization results in the formation of various high lying energy levels, a variety of excited state structures are available upon absorption of energy by the conducting polymer. The luminescence yields of these excited state structures depend highly on polymer structure. The luminescence can be quenched by the presence of species capable of absorbing the energy contained by the polymer, resulting in the polymer returning to a ground state. The species can be an external species or internally located within the polymer, such as a side-group. One example of such quenching by internal species is through a π-stacking mechanism. Atoms involved in the π-conjugation can be positioned on top of other groups having geometrically accessible π-orbitals, forming a pathway for energy transfer.

Luminescent polymers are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,414,069 which describes an electroluminescent polymer having a main chain and a plurality of side chains. The main chain contains methylene or oxide groups and the side chains contain the electroluminescent groups such that the electroluminescent groups are not conjugated with one another. One method of modulating electroluminescent properties is by varying the spacing between the electroluminescent groups.

U.S. Pat. No. 5,597,890 relates to π-conjugated polymers that form exciplexes with electron donor or acceptor components. The polymer has a main chain of unsaturated units such as carbon-carbon double and triple bonds and aromatic groups. The side chains include single ring aryl groups.

Thus there remains a need to design polymers having maximal luminescent lifetimes for use in sensory devices, in particular where the luminescent properties are sensitive to the presence of specific analytes.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to polymeric compositions capable of emitting radiation and exhibiting increased luminescent lifetimes and quantum yields. These compositions can be tailored to prevent π-stacking or interactions with acceptor species that can quench the luminescence. The polymers have sufficient rigidity through design of the polymer backbone and/or side groups which not only optimizes optical properties but imparts enhanced polymer stability. The invention also provides devices such as sensors which incorporate films of these polymeric compositions.

One aspect of the invention provides a sensor comprising a film including a polymer. The polymer includes a chromophore and the polymer is capable of emitting radiation with a quantum yield of at least about 0.05 times that of a quantum yield of the polymer in solution.

Another aspect of the present invention provides a method for amplifying an emission. The method comprises providing an article comprising a polymer having an energy migration pathway and a chromophore. The article is exposed to a source of energy to form an excitation energy. The excitation energy is allowed to travel through the migration pathway and to transfer to the chromophore, causing an emission that is greater than an emission resulting from a polymer free of an energy migration pathway.

Another aspect of the present invention provides a method for amplifying an emission. The method involves providing an article comprising a polymer having an energy migration pathway. The polymer has reduced π-stacking. The article is exposed to a source of energy from an excitation energy. The excitation energy is allowed to travel through the migration pathway to cause an emission that is greater than an emission resulting from a polymer free of an energy migration pathway.

Another aspect of the present invention provides a sensor. The sensor comprises an article having at least one layer including a polymeric composition and a chromophore. The article further comprises an activation site where the chromophore is capable of activation by an analyte at the activation site. The sensor also comprises an energy migration pathway within the polymeric composition where energy can be transferred from the pathway to the activation site.

Another aspect of the present invention provides a sensor comprising a polymer capable of emission. The emission is variable and sensitive to an electric field of a medium surrounding the sensor.

Another aspect of the present invention provides a sensor comprising a polymer capable of emission. The emission is variable and sensitive to a dielectric constant of a medium surrounding the sensor.

Another aspect of the present invention provides an amplification device. The device comprises a polymer having an energy migration pathway capable of transporting an excitation energy. The device further comprises a chromophore in electronic communication with the energy migration pathway where the chromophore is capable of emitting an enhanced radiation.

Another aspect of the invention provides a polymeric composition. The composition comprises a conjugated π-backbone, the π-backbone comprising a plane of atoms. A first group and a second group is attached to the π-backbone, the first group having a first fixed height above the plane and the second group having a second fixed height below the plane. A sum of the first and second heights is at least about 4.5 Å.

Another aspect of the invention provides a sensor which includes a polymeric article comprising the structure:

A and C are aromatic groups and B and D are selected from the group consisting of a carbon-carbon double bond and a carbon-carbon triple bond. Any hydrogen on aromatic group A and C can be replaced by E and F respectively, a and b being integers which can be the same or different and a=0-4, b=0-4 such that when a=0, b is nonzero and when b=0, a is nonzero, and at least one of E and F includes a bicyclic ring system having aromatic or non-aromatic groups optionally interrupted by O, S, NR¹ and C(R¹)₂ wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy and aryl. The value n is less than about 10,000. The sensor further comprises a source of energy applicable to the polymeric composition to cause emission of radiation and a device for detecting the emission.

Another aspect of the invention provides a method for detecting the presence of an analyte. The method provides a polymeric article comprising the structure:

A and C are aromatic groups and B and D are selected from the group consisting of a carbon-carbon double bond and a carbon-carbon triple bond. Any hydrogen on aromatic group A and C can be replaced by E and F respectively, a and b being integers which can be the same or different and a=0-4, b=0-4 such that when a=0, b is nonzero and when b=0, a is nonzero, and at least one of E and F includes a bicyclic ring system having aromatic or non-aromatic groups optionally interrupted by O, S, NR¹ and C(R¹)₂ wherein R¹ is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy and aryl. The value n is less than about 10,000. The method further includes exposing the polymeric composition to a source of energy to cause a first emission of radiation. The polymeric composition is then exposed to a medium suspected of containing an analyte, causing a second emission of radiation. The method involves detecting a difference between the first emission and the second emission.

Another aspect of the invention provides a field-effect transistor including an insulating medium having a first side and an opposing second side and a polymeric article positioned adjacent the first side of the insulating medium. A first electrode is electrically connected to a first portion of the polymeric article and a second electrode is electrically connected to a second portion of the polymeric article. Each electrode is positioned on the first side of the insulating medium, and the first electrode is further connected to the second electrode by an electrical circuit external of the polymeric structure. A gate electrode is positioned on the second side of the insulating medium in a region directly opposite the polymeric article where the gate electrode is also connected to a voltage source. A source of electromagnetic radiation is positioned to apply the electromagnetic radiation to the article. At least one species is associated with the article. The at least one species, upon exposing the polymeric article to the electromagnetic radiation, is a component of an excited state structure.

Another aspect of the invention provides a sensor comprising a luminescent polymer comprising a hydrogen-bond donor, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is capable of interacting with an analyte to form a complex between the hydrogen-bond donor and the analyte, the complex being capable of interacting with the luminescent polymer and causing the luminescent polymer to signal the presence of the analyte, wherein, in the absence of the hydrogen-bond donor, the analyte is less capable of interacting with the luminescent polymer.

The present invention also provides methods for determination of an analyte comprising providing a luminescent polymer comprising a hydrogen-bond donor; exposing the luminescent polymer to a sample suspected of containing an analyte, wherein the analyte, if present, interacts with the hydrogen-bond donor to cause a change in the luminescence of the polymer; and determining the change in the luminescence of the polymer, thereby determining the analyte, wherein, in the absence of the hydrogen-bond donor, the analyte produces a lower degree of change in the luminescence of the polymer.

Other advantages, novel features, and objects of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which are schematic and which are not intended to be drawn to scale. In the figures, each identical or nearly identical component that is illustrated in various figures is represented by a single numeral. For purposes of clarity, not every component is labeled in every figure, nor is every component of each embodiment of the invention shown where illustration is not necessary to allow those of ordinary skill in the art to understand the invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a schematic of a film comprising a polymer having a chromophore positioned on a surface of the polymer;

FIG. 2 shows a schematic of a rigid side group having fixed heights above and below a π-backbone plane;

FIG. 3 shows fluorescence spectra of (a) polymer A before and after heating polymer A to 140° C. for 10 minutes; (b) polymer A before and after washing polymer A to methanol for 5 min; (c) polymer X before and after heating polymer X to 140° C. for five minutes; (d) polymer X before and after washing polymer X with methanol for 5 min.;

FIG. 4 shows solid state and solution absorption and emission spectra for (a) polymer A; (b) polymer X;

FIG. 5 shows emission spectra for polymer C and an exciplex band including polymer C;

FIG. 6 shows emission spectra over time of (a) polymer A in the absence and presence of dinitrotoluene (DNT) vapor; (b) polymer A in the absence and presence of trinitrotoluene (TNT) vapor; (c) polymer A in the absence and presence of benzoquinone vapor; (d) polymer B in the absence and presence of DNT; (e) polymer A in the absence and presence of TNT and an inset shows a plot of percent quenching versus time.

FIG. 7 shows a schematic of a field-effect transistor;

FIG. 8 shows a schematic synthesis of (a) the polymerization of poly(phenyleneethynylene) on phenyliodide functionalized resin; (b) ethyl ester end functionalized poly(phenyleneethynylene);

FIG. 9 shows a schematic synthesis of (a) polymer A and polymer B; (b) polymer C;

FIG. 10 shows a schematic synthesis of (a) polymer synthesis with monomer DD; (b) monomer 1,4-Dinaphthyl-2,5-diacetylidebenzene (DD);

FIG. 11A schematically shows amplified emission of two polymers in series;

FIG. 11B schematically shows amplified emission of a multi-layer of polymers in series;

FIG. 12 shows a plot of enhanced sensitivity of the sensor for TNT when a donor polymer is in series with an acceptor polymer;

FIG. 13 shows a schematic of a multi-layer sensor having a gradient of energy band gaps and an activated chromophore at a surface of the multi-layer;

FIG. 14 shows a range of emissions for transporter chromophore A and a variety of polymers B-F;

FIG. 15 shows polymers A-D that are capable of detecting the presence of TNT vapor, as indicated by an intensity plot over time;

FIG. 16 shows a fluorescence intensity plot displaying a variation in intensities for an “all-iptycene” polymer

FIG. 17 shows a schematic synthesis of a monomer having acetylene functional groups;

FIG. 18 shows a schematic synthesis for the preparation of acetylene-based polymers;

FIG. 19 shows examples of polymer structures that can provide hydrogen-bonding interactions as well as charge-transfer interactions;

FIG. 20 shows examples of electron-poor polymer structures;

FIG. 21 shows an example of a polymer structure having fluoride groups and displaying spectral data in the presence of TNT;

FIG. 22 shows an example of groups that are reactive with phosphate ester groups;

FIG. 23 shows a schematic of a polymer having rigid groups that reduce π-stacking interactions between polymer backbones;

FIG. 24 shows an example of a polymer structure substituted with fluorinated alcohol groups for hydrogen bonding nitro groups;

FIG. 25 shows an example of an exciplex structure formed in the presence of a cation and emission intensity data upon binding a cation;

FIG. 26 shows a schematic synthesis of a polymer containing a crown ether;

FIG. 27 shows examples of polymer structures having groups capable of binding cations;

FIG. 28 shows examples of triphenylene-based polymer structures;

FIG. 29 shows an example of a cyclophane polymer structure;

FIG. 30 shows a schematic synthesis of a triphenylene-based monomer;

FIG. 31 shows a schematic synthesis of a triphenylene-based monomer;

FIG. 32 shows examples of triphenylene-based polymer structures; and

FIG. 33 shows a device comprising a transparent support coated with a polymer film capable of amplifying emission through sequential emission end re-absorption cycles.

FIG. 34 shows a schematic synthesis of a monomer having a hexafluoroisopropanol group, according to one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 35 shows a schematic synthesis of a monomer having two hexafluoroisopropanol groups, according to one embodiment of the present invention.

FIG. 36 shows a schematic synthesis of a polymers containing hexafluoroisopropanol groups.

FIG. 37 shows the average changes in fluorescence emission intensity of various luminescent polymers upon repeated exposures to equilibrium vapor pressures of several analytes.

FIG. 38 shows the real-time fluorescence response of (a) polymer P1 to five separate 3 second exposures to pyridine vapor, (b) polymer P2 to a single 3 second exposure to pyridine vapor, and (c) polymer P3 to a single 3 second exposure to pyridine vapor.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present invention relates to polymer films exhibiting enhanced optical properties such as luminescent lifetimes, amplified emissions, enhanced stabilities and devices such as sensors which incorporate these polymer films. The sensors may be capable of determining, for example, aromatic compounds including heterocycles, compounds comprising phosphate ester groups, and/or explosives and chemical warfare agents.

One aspect of the invention provides a sensor comprising a film. A “sensor” refers to any device or article capable of detecting an analyte. In one embodiment, the film comprises a polymer where the polymer includes a chromophore. Polymers are extended molecular structures comprising a backbone which optionally contain pendant side groups, where “backbone” refers to the longest continuous bond pathway of the polymer. A “chromophore” refers to a species that can either absorb or emit electromagnetic radiation. In a preferred embodiment, the chromophore is capable of absorbing or emitting radiation in the UV-visible range, i.e. absorbed or emitted energy involving excited electronic states. In one embodiment, the chromophore is a conjugated group. A “conjugated group” refers to an interconnected chain of at least three atoms, each atom participating in delocalized π-bonding.

A polymer including a chromophore can absorb a quantum of electromagnetic radiation to cause the polymer to achieve an excited state structure. In one embodiment, the polymer is an emissive polymer capable of emitting radiation. Radiation can be emitted from a chromophore of the polymer. In one embodiment, the emitted radiation is luminescence, in which “luminescence” is defined as an emission of ultraviolet or visible radiation. Specific types of luminescence include “fluorescence” in which a time interval between absorption and emission of visible radiation ranges from 10⁻¹² to 10⁻⁷ s. “Chemiluminescence” refers to emission of radiation due to a chemical reaction, whereas “electrochemiluminescence” refers to emission of radiation due to electrochemical reactions. If the chromophore is a conjugated group, the extent of delocalized bonding allows the existence of a number of accessible electronic excited states. If the conjugation is so extensive so as to produce a near continuum of excited states, electronic excitations can involve a valence band, the highest fully occupied band, and a conduction band.

Typically, fluorescence is “quenched” when a chromophore in an excited state is exposed to an “acceptor” species that can absorb energy from the excited state chromophore. The excited state chromophore returns to a ground state due to nonradiative processes (i.e. without emitting radiation), resulting in a reduced quantum yield. A “quantum yield” refers to a number of photons emitted per adsorbed photon. Thus, the excited state chromophore can function as a “donor” species in that it transfers energy to the acceptor species. The acceptor species can be an external molecule such as another polymer or an internal species such as another portion of the same polymer.

In particular, when a polymer includes conjugated portions, the polymer can undergo a phenomena known as “π-stacking,” which involves cofacial interactions between π-orbitals of the conjugated portions. If the polymer includes a conjugated chromophore, a π-stacking arrangement can facilitate energy transfer between donor and acceptor species and increase the likelihood of quenching. The capability for π-stacking is considerably enhanced when the polymer is in the solid state, i.e. not in solution.

It is an advantageous feature of the present invention to provide a polymer including a chromophore, where the polymer has a molecular structure that reduces π-stacking interactions, resulting in increased quantum yields and/or luminescence lifetimes. It is particularly advantageous that these enhanced properties can be achieved when the polymer is provided as a solid state material, e.g. a film. In one embodiment, the film comprising a polymer including a chromophore has a quantum yield of at least about 0.05 times the quantum yield of the polymer in solution, more preferably at least about 0.1 times the quantum yield of the polymer in solution, more preferably at least about 0.15 times the quantum yield of the polymer in solution, more preferably at least about 0.2 times the quantum yield of the polymer in solution, more preferably at least about 0.25 times the quantum yield of the polymer in solution, more preferably at least about 0.3 times the quantum yield of the polymer in solution, more preferably at least about 0.4 times the quantum yield of the polymer in solution, and more preferably still about 0.5 times the quantum yield of the polymer in solution.

In one embodiment, the polymer backbone includes at least one chromophore. Preferably, the backbone includes a plurality of chromophores optionally interrupted by conjugated or non-conjugated groups. In one embodiment, the polymer backbone includes a plurality of chromophores interrupted by non-conjugated groups. Non-conjugated groups include saturated units such as a chain of alkyl groups optionally interrupted by heteroatoms. In one embodiment, the polymer backbone includes a chromophore attached as a pendant group. The backbone can be either conjugated or non-conjugated.

In one embodiment, at least a portion of the polymer is conjugated, i.e. the polymer has at least one conjugated portion. By this arrangement, electron density or electronic charge can be conducted along the portion where the electronic charge is referred to as being “delocalized.” Each p-orbital participating in conjugation can have sufficient overlap with adjacent conjugated p-orbitals. In one embodiment, the conjugated portion is at least about 30 Å in length. In another embodiment, the entire backbone is conjugated and the polymer is referred to as a “conjugated polymer.” Polymers having a conjugated π-backbone capable of conducting electronic charge are typically referred to as “conducting polymers.” In the present invention the conducting polymers can either comprise chromophore monomeric units, or chromophores interspersed between other conjugated groups. Typically, atoms directly participating in the conjugation form a plane, the plane arising from a preferred arrangement of the p-orbitals to maximize p-orbital overlap, thus maximizing conjugation and electronic conduction. An example of a conjugated π-backbone defining essentially a plane of atoms are the carbon atoms of a polyacetylene chain.

In one embodiment, the polymer is selected from the group consisting of polyarylenes, polyarylene vinylenes, polyarylene ethynylenes and ladder polymers, i.e. polymers having a backbone that can only be severed by breaking two bonds. Examples of such polymers include polythiophene, polypyrrole, polyacetylene, polyphenylene and substituted derivatives thereof. Examples of ladder polymers are:

In these examples, monomeric units can combine to form a chromophore. For example, in polythiophene, the chromophore comprises about thiophene groups.

By reducing the extent of luminescence quenching, luminescence lifetimes are increased and thus excitation energy can travel along a longer pathway in the polymer. The pathway is referred to as an “energy migration pathway” which can efficiently transport excitation energy, preferably electronic excitation energy. In one embodiment, the pathway has a length of at least about 30 Å. In one embodiment, the pathway comprises a series of electronic energy states accessible to the excitation energy.

A chromophore can have different functions in a polymer. For example, physical characteristics of a chromophore can be affected by detection of an analyte. This type of chromophore is referred to as a “reporter chromophore” which reports the detection of an analyte. A reporter chromophore can be bonded to the polymer or can be an external molecule. A chromophore in the polymer can also function to transport excitation energy along the polymer and can be referred to as a “transporter chromophore.”

Accompanying this advantageous feature of longer pathways and lifetimes is enhanced amplification of emission. It has been established that amplification in a polymer is related to a distance over which excitation energy can travel. Thus, another aspect of the present invention provides a method for amplifying an emission. The method involves providing an article having a polymeric composition having an energy migration pathway and a chromophore. In one embodiment, the chromophore can be a reporter chromophore. The energy migration pathway can be conjugated. Exposing the article to a source of energy forms an excitation energy which is allowed to travel through the migration pathway. In one embodiment, migration is enhanced if it occurs in a direction where a HOMO-LUMO gap continually decreases. Energy can transfer from the pathway to a chromophore to cause an emission of radiation. In one embodiment, the reporter chromophore can be bonded to the polymer as a portion of the backbone or as a pendant side group. In another embodiment, the reporter chromophore is a molecule external to the polymer.

In one embodiment, the emission from a reporter chromophore is greater than an emission from a reporter chromophore in a polymer that is free of an energy migration pathway. Polymers that are “free of an energy migration pathway” typically refer to polymers that are incapable of efficiently transporting excitation energies, e.g. polymers having a completely carbon-based saturated backbone lacking pendant chromophores.

Energy transfer from the pathway to the reporter chromophore is facilitated if the chromophore has a HOMO-LUMO gap less than at least a portion of the pathway. To enhance amplification, preferably the reporter chromophore has a HOMO-LUMO gap less than a substantial portion of the pathway, to maximize a distance that the excitation energy travels before transfer to the reporter chromophore.

An example of a film comprising polymer of the present invention is provided in FIG. 1 which shows polymer 551 having an energy migration pathway 550. Exposing the polymer to a source of energy 553 results in an excitation energy that can travel along an energy migration pathway 550. To “travel along an energy migration pathway” refers to a process by which excitation energy can transfer between accessible energy states. Arrows 555 indicate a direction of travel, and typically this direction is dictated by a continual decrease of a HOMO-LUMO gap of the energy states in the migration pathway. Emission from the polymer, indicated by arrows 554, can result. Polymer 551 has a chromophore that allows this emission of radiation.

Another aspect of the present invention provides an amplification device. The device comprises a polymer having an energy migration pathway capable of transporting an excitation energy. As described above, the polymer can be exposed to a source of energy which is absorbed by the polymer as an excitation energy. The excitation energy can travel through the migration pathway and transfer to a chromophore in electronic communication with the energy migration pathway, whereby an enhanced radiation is emitted from the chromophore. An excitation energy can transfer from the migration pathway to the chromophore if the chromophore is in electronic communication with the pathway, i.e. the chromophore has accessible energy states by which excitation energy traveling through the migration pathway can transfer. By this device, the emission of any number of polymers can be enhanced.

Another aspect of the present invention provides reduced π-stacking interactions through the incorporation of rigid groups on the polymer. “Rigid groups” refers to groups that do not easily rotate about a bond axis, preferably a bond that binds the rigid group to the polymer. In one embodiment, the rigid group rotates no more than about 180°, preferably no more than about 120° and more preferably no more than about 60°. Certain types of rigid groups can provide a polymer with a backbone separated from an adjacent backbone at a distance of at least about 4.5 Å and more preferably at least about 5.0 Å. In one embodiment, the rigid groups are incorporated as pendant groups. For example, the rigid group may be attached to an aromatic portion of the polymer backbone to form an iptycene moiety, wherein at least a portion of the iptycene is not planar with the with backbone.

The effect of rigid groups can be schematically illustrated in FIG. 23. Rigid group 382 can be appended onto a polymer backbone 384. The rigid groups prevent substantial interaction between polymer backbones 384 such that cavities 380 are produced. In addition to preventing or reducing the amount of π-stacking, cavities 380 can allow an area for the entry of analytes 386.

In one embodiment, a polymeric composition is provided having a conjugated π-backbone, the π-backbone comprising essentially a plane of atoms. A first group and a second group are attached to the π-backbone of the polymeric composition. Both the first and second groups have at least some atoms that are not planar with the plane of atoms such that the atoms can be positioned either below or above the conjugated plane of atoms. It is a feature of the invention that these heights are fixed, the term “fixed height” defined as a height of an atom that is not planar with the plane of atoms where the atom is free of substantial rotational motion, as described above.

FIG. 2 shows an example of a “fixed height” where side group 26 is bonded to the backbone in a manner that restricts rotational motion. In this example, hydrogen atoms 26 and 28 define a fixed height relative to plane 14. The fixed height of sidegroup 26 is defined by hydrogen atom 28, having a fixed height above the plane 30 and hydrogen 32 having a fixed height below the plane 34. In one embodiment, a sum of the fixed heights is at least about 4.5 Å and more preferably at least about 5.0 Å.

It is another feature of the invention that the polymeric composition is rigid with respect to relative orientation between polymers. Typically, polymers have a nonordered structure. Upon polymerization or solidification, the polymer can orient in a random arrangement. This arrangement can change over time, or upon exposure to heat or a solvent that does not dissolve the polymer. In one embodiment, the compositions of the present invention are rigid to the extent that the polymer arrangement does not substantially change over time, upon exposure to solvent or upon heating to a temperature of no more than 150° C. That is, the rigidity of the side group defining a fixed height does not change and the height is not affected. In one embodiment, the exposure to solvent or heating step occurs over a period of time of about 5 min., preferably over a period of time of about 10 min., more preferably about 15 min., more preferably about 30 min., and more preferably still about 1 h. In one embodiment, the composition is characterized by a first optical spectrum having at least one maximum or maxima. The composition is then exposed to a solvent or heated to a temperature of less than about 140° C. and a second optical spectrum is obtained. A maximum or maxima in the first spectrum differ by no more than about 15 nm from a corresponding maximum or maxima in the second spectrum, preferably the maxima differ by no more than about 10 nm and more preferably the maxima differ by no more than about 5 nm. In another embodiment, maxima in the second spectrum have an intensity change of less than about 10% relative to the maxima in the first spectrum, and preferably the intensity change is less than about 15% relative to the maxima in the first spectrum.

An advantage of the present invention is illustrated in FIG. 3. FIG. 3 compares various spectra of polymers A (shown below) and polymer X (which does not have sufficient rigidity, shown below) in the solid state. In FIG. 3(a), an initial fluorescence spectrum 50 of polymer A is obtained. Polymer A is then heated to 140° C. for 10 minutes and spectrum 52 is obtained. The fluorescence maxima values and fluorescence intensities are nearly identical, providing evidence that any reorganization between polymer chains or chemical reorganization within each chain is insubstantial. In FIG. 3(b), a similar comparison is made between an initial spectrum 54 and spectrum 56 for a polymer A, spectrum 56 being obtained after exposing the polymer to a solvent such as methanol for 5 min. In this example, the exposing involves washing the polymer with methanol. The absorption maxima of spectrum 54 have the same frequencies as the corresponding maxima in 56, and the intensities in 56 decrease by only about 10%, again showing the reorganizational stability to solvent exposure. In contrast, a comparison of an initial spectrum 58 of planar model polymer X is shown in FIG. 3(c) which shows a substantial differences from fluorescence spectrum 60, taken after heating the polymer to 140° C. for only five minutes. Not only do the fluorescence maxima occur at different frequencies but the intensities decrease significantly. In FIG. 3(d), the intensities of fluorescence spectrum 62 of polymer X decrease by 15% in spectrum 64 which was obtained after washing polymer X with methanol for about 5 min.

FIG. 4 shows a comparison of solution and solid state absorption and emission spectra for a polymer allowing π-stacking interactions that can quench luminescence, rendering the polymer ineffective for the uses of the invention, versus a polymer of the invention having sufficient rigidity to prevent π-stacking interactions. In FIG. 4(a) absorption and emission spectra 100 and 102 respectively, are obtained for polymer A in solution. Polymer A has a rigid structure with respect to chain reorganization, such that absorption and emission spectra 104 and 106 respectively, obtained for polymer A as a film, show little decrease in intensity. In contrast, FIG. 4(b) shows solution absorption and emission spectra 108 and 110 respectively for polymer X which does not have a rigid structure in accordance with the features of the invention. The film absorption and emission spectra, 112 and 114 respectively, show significant wavelength shifts and a substantial decrease in intensity (the intensity of spectrum 114 has actually been normalized to an increased intensity to better illustrate the spectral characteristics and actually has a smaller intensity than shown in FIG. 4(b)).

Some embodiments of the present invention provides polymeric compositions (e.g., luminescent polymers) having the structure,

wherein n is at least 1, A and C are optionally substituted aromatic groups, and B and D are alkene, alkyne, heteroalkene, or heteroalkyne.

Another aspect of the invention provides a polymeric composition comprising the structure:

A and C are optionally substituted aromatic groups. Specifically, an aromatic group is a cyclic structure having a minimum of three atoms with a cyclic, conjugated π-system of p-orbitals, the p-orbitals being occupied with 4n+2 electrons, n being a positive integer. B and D are selected from the group consisting of a carbon-carbon double bond and a carbon-carbon triple bond. E and F are attached to aromatic groups A and C respectively and a and b are integers which can be the same or different, a=0-4 and b=0-4 such that when a=0, b is nonzero and when b=0, a is nonzero. The polymeric composition comprises a conjugated pi-backbone comprising an aromatic portion, and at least one of E and F includes a bicyclic ring system rigidly non-coplanar with the aromatic portion of the conjugated pi-backbone, the bicyclic ring system having aromatic or non-aromatic groups optionally interrupted by heteroatoms or heteroatom groups such as O, S, N, NR¹, CR¹ and C(R¹)₂ wherein R¹ can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy and aryl. When E or F is not said bicyclic ring system, E or F is a part of aromatic group A or C. Preferably n is less than about 10,000. In one embodiment, at least one of E and F comprise the first and second groups having first and second fixed heights above the π-backbone plane. The preferred features of the composition allow the polymer to have extensive π-conjugation throughout the polymer. In a preferred embodiment, the polymer is a conducting polymer.

In one embodiment, the polymeric composition has a structure where E_(a) is shown attached to the π-backbone:

G, H, I, and J are aromatic groups, d=1, 2, and d¹=0, 1, such that when d¹=0, d²=0 and when d¹=1, d²=0, 1. Preferably, c is less than about 10,000.

In a preferred embodiment, G and H may be the same or different, and each can be selected from the aromatic group consisting of:

I and J may be the same or different and each can be selected from the group consisting of:

Any hydrogen in G, H, I and J can be substituted by R² where R² can be selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, phenoxy, C₁-C₂₀ thioalkyl, thioaryl, C(O)OR³, N(R³)(R⁴), C(O)N(R³)(R⁴), F, Cl, Br, NO₂, CN, acyl, carboxylate and hydroxy. R³ and R⁴ can be the same or different and each can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Z¹ can be selected from the group consisting of O, S and NR⁸ where R⁸ can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Z² can be selected from the group consisting of F, Cl, OR³, SR³, NR³R⁴ and SiR⁸R³R⁴.

In one embodiment, A is selected from the group consisting of:

Any hydrogen in A can be substituted by R⁵ where R⁵ can be selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, phenoxy, C₁-C₂₀ thioalkyl, thioaryl, C(O)OR⁶, N(R⁶)(R⁷), C(O)N(R⁶)(R⁷), F, Cl, Br, NO₂, CN, acyl, carboxylate, hydroxy. R⁶ and R⁷ can be the same or different and each can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Z¹ can be selected from the group consisting of O, S and NR⁸ where R⁸ can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Preferably, A is selected from the group consisting of:

In one embodiment, B and D can be the same or different and each can be selected from the group consisting of:

Any hydrogen in B and D can be substituted by R⁹ where R⁹ can be selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, phenoxy, C₁-C₂₀ thioalkyl, thioaryl, C(O)OR¹⁰, N(R¹⁰)(R¹¹), C(O)N(R¹⁰)(R¹¹), F, Cl, Br, NO₂, CN, acyl, carboxylate, hydroxy. R¹⁰ and R¹¹ can be the same or different and each can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Preferably, B and D are:

In one embodiment, C is selected from the aromatic group consisting of:

R¹² can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl and aryl. Any hydrogen in C can be substituted by R¹³ where R¹³ can be selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, phenoxy, C₁-C₂₀ thioalkyl, thioaryl, C(O)OR¹⁴, N(R¹⁴)(R¹⁵), C(O)N(R¹⁴)(R¹⁵), F, Cl, Br, NO₂, CN, acyl, carboxylate, hydroxy. R¹⁴ and R¹⁵ can be the same or different and each can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Z² can be selected from the group consisting of O, S and NR¹⁶ where R¹⁶ can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl.

Examples of particularly preferred polymeric compositions having the structural features in accordance with the invention include:

In one embodiment, at least one of G, H, I and J includes a naphthalene group that is a component of an exciplex structure. An “exciplex” is defined as an excited state transient dimer formed between a donor species and an acceptor species. The excited state is formed by photoexcitation of either the donor or the acceptor. Exciplexes can represent an intermediate in a charge transfer process from a donor to an acceptor species. FIG. 5 shows an emission spectrum of a thin film with an exciplex feature 122 for polymer C. The normal solution spectrum is shown by curve 120 which does not have an exciplex feature.

In one embodiment, E is selected from the group consisting of:

Any hydrogen in E can be substituted by R¹⁷ where R¹⁷ can be selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, phenoxy, C₁-C₂₀ thioalkyl, thioaryl, C(O)OR¹⁸, N(R¹⁸)(R¹⁹), C(O)N(R¹⁸)(R¹⁹), F, Cl, Br, I, NO₂, CN, acyl, carboxylate, hydroxy. R¹⁸ and R¹⁹ can be the same or different and each can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Z³ can be selected from the group consisting of O, S and NR²⁰ where R²⁰ can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl.

In one embodiment, the polymeric composition comprises the structure:

Q can be selected from the group consisting of:

R²² can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl and aryl. Any hydrogen in Q can be substituted by R²², R²² can be selected from the group consisting of C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, aryl, C₁-C₂₀ alkoxy, phenoxy, C₁-C₂₀ thioalkyl, thioaryl, C(O)OR²³, N(R²³)(R²⁴), C(O)N(R²⁴)(R²⁵), F, Cl, Br, I, NO₂, CN, acyl, carboxylate, hydroxy. R²³ and R²⁴ can be the same or different and each can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Z⁴ can be selected from the group consisting of O, S and NR²⁵, Z⁵ can be selected from the group consisting of N and CR²⁵ and R²⁵ can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl, and aryl. Preferably, n is less than about 10,000.

In one embodiment, the polymeric composition comprises the structure:

R²⁶ can be selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, C₁-C₂₀ alkyl and aryl. Q is defined as above.

Other specific examples of polymeric compositions having features in accordance with the invention include:

In another embodiment, the polymeric compositions include triphenylene groups. FIG. 28 shows examples of triphenylene containing polymers 470-478.

Sensors comprising polymeric films also include cyclophane polymer types as shown in FIG. 29.

Another aspect of the invention provides a sensor that can include polymeric compositions of the invention. The polymeric compositions of the present invention have significant fluorescent yields. Because the fluorescence can be quenched in the presence of an acceptor molecule, the decrease in intensity can serve as a method for determining the presence or absence of an analyte. The sensor comprises a polymeric composition comprising the structure:

A, B, C, D, E, F, a and b are defined as above.

The sensor also includes a source of energy applicable to the polymeric composition to cause radiation emission. The energy can be selected from the group consisting of electromagnetic radiation, electrical energy and chemical energy. Preferably, the energy is of a frequency that can be absorbed by the polymer, resulting in an emission of radiation. In particular, when the electromagnetic energy is absorbed by the polymeric composition, luminescence occurs. Electroluminescence occurs when the composition absorbs electrical energy and chemiluminescence results when the composition absorbs chemical energy. The sensor also includes a device for detecting the emission, such as a photomultiplier, a photodiode or a charge coupled device. The emission detector may be positionable to detect the emission.

In one embodiment, the sensor also includes an article to provide enhanced rigidity, sensitivity, selectivity, stability, or a combination of any number of these features, to the ispolymeric composition in the sensor. The article is typically positioned adjacent the polymer and can be selected from the group consisting of beads, nanoparticles, polymer fibers, waveguides and a film. The article can have a composition selected from the group consisting of a biological species, a polymer, a ceramic, a conductor and a semiconductor. Preferred biological species include a peptide, an oligonucleotide, an enzyme, an antibody, a fluorescent peptide, a fluorescent oligonucleotide and a fluorescent antibody. Examples polymers include polystyrene, polyethylene oxide, polyethylene, polysiloxane, polyphenylene, polythiophene, poly(phenylene-vinylene), polysilane, polyethylene terephthalate and poly(phenylene-ethynylene). The semiconductor and conductor can be selected from the group consisting of solids and nanoclusters. Preferred semiconductor materials include Group II/VI, Group III/V and Group IV semiconductors such as CDS, CdSe, InP, GaAs, Si, Ge and porous silicon. A preferred conductor is colloidal gold. Preferred ceramics include glass, quartz, titanium oxide and indium tin oxide.

In one embodiment, the article is capable of further enhancing the emission of a polymer. For example, a sensor can be provided comprising a polymer positioned adjacent a waveguide. Light emitted by the polymer in one can area can be captured by internal reflection in the substrate and then reabsorbed and re-emitted in a different region of the sensor. This process can occur many times before reaching a detector, resulting in a sensor with enhanced sensitivity. Sequential emission and reabsorption cycles increase the probability that an excitation will be quenched or trapped by an analyte. An example of a device that can achieve this effect is shown in FIG. 33 where a transparent support 290 is coated with a polymer film of the present invention. The polymer film is excited by a source of energy 291 on one side of transparent support 290 and emission 292 is detected from an edge on an opposite side of transparent support 290. A further optimization of this device can be achieved by using a waveguide. Excitations in this device can be initiated at one terminus of the waveguide and most of the light emerging from an opposite terminus will hav undergone multiple emission and re-absorption cycles.

Another aspect of the invention provides a method for detecting the presence of an analyte. The method involves providing a composition comprising the structure:

A, B, C, D, E, F, a and b are defined as above. The polymeric composition is exposed to a source of energy is applicable to the polymeric composition and the composition achieves an excited state to cause a first emission of radiation. The first emission can be fluorescence. The first emission is observed by obtaining an initial emission spectrum of the composition in the absence of the analyte. The excited state polymeric composition is then exposed to a medium suspected of containing an analyte. In one embodiment, the excited state composition is a donor species, the analyte is an acceptor species and electronic or energy transfer occurs from the excited state composition to the analyte, providing a route that results in the composition returning to ground state accompanied by a decrease in fluorescence intensity, due to a second emission of radiation. In another embodiment, the excited state composition is an acceptor species and the analyte is a donor species. A difference or change between the first emission and the second emission provides evidence of the presence of an analyte. The difference can be a change in wavelength values or intensity. In some cases, the difference or change comprises a decrease in luminescence intensity. In some cases, the difference or change comprises an increase in luminescence intensity. Additionally, the difference can be a change in the conductivity. The difference can be caused by an electron transfer reaction between the composition and the analyte.

In some cases, methods of the invention comprise determining a change in the wavelength of an emission signal. The wavelength of an emission signal refers to the wavelength at which the peak maximum of the emission signal occurs in an emission spectrum. The emission signal may be a particular peak having the largest intensity in an emission spectrum (e.g. a fluorescence spectrum), or, alternatively, the emission signal may be a peak in an emission spectrum that has at least a defined maximum, but has a smaller intensity relative to other peaks in the emission spectrum.

In some embodiments, the change in luminescence intensity may occur for an emission signal with substantially no shift in the wavelength of the luminescence (e.g., emission), wherein the intensity of the emission signal changes but the wavelength remains essentially unchanged. In other embodiments, the change in luminescence intensity may occur for an emission signal in combination with a shift in the wavelength of the luminescence (e.g., emission). For example, an emission signal may simultaneously undergo a shift in wavelength in addition to an increase or decrease in luminescence intensity. In another embodiment, the change may comprise two emission signals occurring at two different wavelengths, wherein each of the two emission signals undergoes a change in luminescence intensity. In some cases, the two emission signals may undergo changes in luminescence intensity independent of one another. In some cases, the two emission signals may undergo changes in luminescence intensity, wherein the two emission signals are associated with one another, for example, via an energy transfer mechanism, as described more fully below.

In some embodiments, methods of the present invention may further comprise determining a change in the wavelength of the luminescence upon exposure of a luminescent polymer to an analyte. That is, in some cases, determination of an analyte may comprise observing a change in luminescence intensity in combination with a change in the luminescence wavelength. For example, the relative luminescence intensities of a first emission signal and a second emission signal associated with the first emission signal may be modulated using the quenching and unquenching methods described herein. In some cases, the first emission signal and the second emission signal may be associated with (e.g., interact with) one another via an energy transfer mechanism, such as fluorescence resonance energy transfer, for example. The term “fluorescence resonance energy transfer” or “FRET” is known in the art and refers to the transfer of excitation energy from an excited state species (i.e., FRET donor) to an acceptor species (i.e., FRET acceptor), wherein an emission is observed from the acceptor species. In some cases, the FRET donor may be a luminescent polymer, portion(s) thereof, or other species, such as an analyte. Similarly, the FRET acceptor may be a luminescent polymer, portion(s) thereof, or other species, such as an analyte.

In one embodiment, a first portion of a luminescent polymer may act as FRET donor and a second portion within the same luminescent polymer may act as a FRET acceptor, wherein the first portion and the second portion each have different emission wavelengths. The luminescent polymer may be associated with a quenching molecule and exist in a “quenched” state, wherein, upon exposure of the first portion to electromagnetic radiation, the quenching molecule absorbs the excitation energy and substantially no emission is observed. Upon exposure to an analyte, the analyte may interact with the luminescent polymer and/or quenching molecule to “un-quench” the luminescent polymer. As a result, exposure of the first portion to electromagnetic radiation produces an excited-state, wherein the first portion of the luminescent polymer may transfer excitation energy to the second portion of the luminescent polymer, and emission signal from the second portion is observed.

Specificity for a particular analyte by a polymer can be a combination of size exclusion and functionalization of the polymer. For example, more electron-rich polymers display a higher sensitivity to nitroaromatics. Thus, structure-function relationships can be obtained.

FIG. 17 shows a synthesis of monomer 708 that can be used to form polymers that are quenched more strongly in the presence of an equilibrium vapor pressure of TNT than that of DNT. In FIG. 17, reactant 700 can produce reactant 702 in three steps. By the addition of BuLi in THF followed by the addition of 80% I₂, molecule 702 can be transformed to 704. Conjugation can be achieved by the addition of trimethylsilylacetylene to 704 in the presence of 80% Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂. The TMS groups can be achieved from 706 by the addition of 91% KOH/MEOH to achieve monomer 708. By using monomer 708 for other similar acetylene derivatives, polymers 880-884 can be prepared, as shown in FIG. 18. Polymerization is effected by the addition of a coupling region, such as Pd(dppf)₂Cl₂, for polymer 880 and Pd(PPh₃)₄, for polymers 881-884. Such selectivity is surprising considering that the vapor pressure of DNT is about 100 times greater than that of TNT. Specific detection of TNT provides the capability to detect explosive devices in the gaseous phase. Examples of explosive devices include land mines.

FIG. 6 shows emission spectra of polymer A in the absence and in the presence of various analytes. In FIG. 6(a), an initial emission spectrum 150 is obtained in the absence of an analyte. The composition is then exposed to an analyte, dinitrotoluene (DNT) vapor, and a decrease in intensity is observed in the maxima of the spectra with time, as denoted by curves 152 (10 s), 154 (30 s), 156 (1 min.) and 158 (3 min.). FIG. 6(b) shows a detection of another example of an analyte, trinitrotoluene (TNT) vapor, by polymer A as evidenced a decrease in intensity is observed in the maxima of the spectra over time, as denoted by curves 160 (initial), 162 (10 s), 164 (30 s), 166 (1 min.) and 168 (10 min.). FIG. 6(c) shows a detection of another example of an analyte, benzoquinone vapor, by polymer A as evidenced by a decrease in intensity is observed in the maxima of the spectra over time, as denoted by curves 170 (initial), 172 (10 s), 174 (30 s), 176 (1 min.) and 178 (10 min.). FIG. 6(d) shows detection of DNT, by polymer B as evidenced by a decrease in intensity is observed in the maxima of the spectra over time, as denoted by curves 180 (initial), 182 (10 s), 184 (30 s), 186 (1 min.) and 188 (10 min.). FIG. 6(e) shows a detection of TNT by polymer A as evidenced by a decrease in intensity is observed in the maxima of the spectra over time, as denoted by curves 190 (initial), 192 (10 s), 194 (30 s), 196 (1 min.) and 198 (10 min.). The inset of FIG. 6(e) shows a plot of percent quenching versus time.

FIG. 15 shows a variety of polymers, A-D, that are capable of detecting the presence of TNT vapor. A concentration of the vapor can be much less than about 1 ppb. As shown in FIG. 15, by varying the polymer type, enhanced emission intensities can be achieved and responsiveness can be optimized. For example, polymer type A shows the fastest response time, as indicated by a plateau achieved at a time of less than about 30 seconds.

FIG. 16 shows a variation in fluorescence intensities for an “all-iptycene” polymer. The all-iptycene structure provides the polymer with excellent solubility and stability. The all-iptycene polymer is sensitive to TNT detection, and increased detection times provide decreased intensities. Curve 938 corresponds to a detection time of 480 s, curve 936 corresponds to a time of 120 s, curve 934 corresponds to a time of 60 s, curve 932 corresponds to a time of 30 s, and curve 930 corresponds to a time of 0 s.

Polymers having hydrogen-bonding capabilities can also be synthesized. Thus, in one embodiment, the invention provides the ability to detect analytes capable of hydrogen-bonding interactions. FIG. 19 shows polymers 680-682 that can provide hydrogen-bonding interactions as well as charge-transfer interactions. Lewis and Bronsted base/acid sites can be used to impart selectivity for specific analytes.

Typically, electron poor polymers can enable quenching by electron-rich analytes and thus, in one embodiment, sensors having specificity for electron-rich analytes are provided. Thus, sensitivity to electron-rich analytes can be achieved by substituting a polymer with groups that increase electron affinity. FIG. 20 shows examples of electron poor polymers 720-725, where electron poor characteristics can be conveyed by groups such as fluoride and cyano groups. FIG. 21 shows an example of a polymer having fluoride groups. This polymer shows that fluorine is particularly effective at producing a polymer that is not readily quenched by TNT. This effect is likely due to the diminished reducing ability of the polymer. As shown in the blot, varying the ejection time from 0 s to 600 s shows very little difference in fluorescence intensities for TNT. Thus, these polymers can function as sensory elements for hydroquinones and other electron-rich aromatics that are of biological or environmental importance. Examples include dioxin, dopamine, aniline, benzene, toluene and phenols.

Another aspect of the invention provides a field-effect transistor. One embodiment of a field effect transistor is depicted in FIG. 7. The field-effect transistor 200 includes an insulating medium 202 having a first side 203 and an opposing second side 205. A polymeric article 201 is positioned adjacent the first side 203 of the insulating medium. Preferably the polymeric article has a composition in accordance with those of the invention as defined previously. A first electrode 204 is electrically connected to a first portion of the polymeric article 201 and a second electrode 206 is electrically connected to a second portion of the polymeric article 201. Each electrode 204 and 206 is positioned on the first side 203 of the insulating medium 202. The first electrode 204 is further connected to the second electrode 206 by an electrical circuit 208 external of the polymeric structure. A gate electrode 212 is positioned on the second side 205 of the insulating medium 202 in a region directly below the polymeric structure. The gate electrode 212 is further connected to a voltage source 210. A source of electromagnetic radiation 216 is positioned to apply the electromagnetic radiation to the article. The gate electrode 212 can be supported by a layer 214 such as SiO₂ or Si. At least one species, shown as 218, is associated with the article. Exposing the polymeric article to the electromagnetic radiation, results in species 218 being a component of an excited state structure.

Thus, the polymeric article achieves an excited state structure which can accept or donate charge to the species 218 associated with the article. The article also functions to carry the charge 220 to a region between the first and second electrode. In one embodiment, the first and second electrode is a source and drain electrode respectively. In this embodiment, the article injects charge 220 and changes the current between the source and drain electrodes. Prior to exposing the polymeric article to electromagnetic radiation, a current between the source and drain electrodes is a first current. After exposing the polymeric article to electromagnetic radiation, the current between the source and drain electrodes is a second current. Preferably the second current is greater than the first current.

Another embodiment provides an improvement over the first embodiment where the field-effect transistor further comprises a polymeric article which effectively transports charge. The polymers of the invention are effective for achieving high luminescent yields and functioning as a charge-injection polymer. In this embodiment, the field-effect transistor has an insulating medium having a first side and an opposing second side. A first polymeric article is positioned adjacent the first side of the insulating medium. Preferably this first polymeric article is a charge-conducting polymer and can be selected from the group consisting of polythiophene, polypyrrole, polyacetylene, polyphenylene and polyaniline. In another embodiment, the first polymeric article can be any polymer of the invention described previously. First and second electrodes are connected to first and second portions of the first polymeric article respectively. Each electrode is positioned on the first side of the insulating medium. The first electrode is further connected to the second electrode by an electrical circuit external of the first polymeric article. A gate electrode is positioned on the second side of the insulating medium below the first polymeric article, the gate electrode being connected to a voltage source. The invention comprises a second polymeric article positioned adjacent the first polymeric article. The second polymeric article is preferably a charge-injecting polymer having a composition in accordance with those of the invention as described previously. The field-effect transistor further includes a source of electromagnetic radiation applicable to a second polymeric article. At least one species is associated with the second polymeric article. The at least one species, which upon exposing the polymeric article to the electromagnetic radiation, is a component of an excited state structure.

Another aspect of the present invention provides a sensor comprising an article including at least one layer including a polymeric composition. The polymeric composition includes a reporter chromophore and the article further comprises an activation site wherein the reporter chromophore is capable of activation by an analyte at the activation site. An energy migration pathway within the polymeric composition allows energy to be transferred from the pathway to the activation site. Referring back to FIG. 1, polymer 551 can have reporter chromophores 552 positioned on the polymer. Chromophores 552 can also be dispersed within a bulk of the polymer 551. Excitation energy traversing through migration pathway 550 can transfer between various energy states of continually decreasing HOMO-LUMO gap. If chromophore 552 has a HOMO-LUMO gap greater than a HOMO-LUMO gap of at least a portion of the energy migration pathway and more preferably greater than a substantial portion of the energy migration pathway, energy transfer between the pathway 550 and chromophore 552 does not occur and only polymer emission 554 results.

If, however, the chromophore 552 is activated by an analyte, reporter chromophore 556 can result, where a HOMO-LUMO gap is less than a HOMO-LUMO gap of at least a portion of the energy migration pathway 550 and more preferably less than that of a substantial portion of energy migration pathway 550. By this arrangement, energy transfer can occur between polymer 551 and activated chromophore 556 to cause chromophore emission 558.

“Activation” by an analyte results in a reporter chromophore having a lower energy resulting in a decrease in the HOMO-LUMO gap. In one embodiment, activation by an analyte results in a chromophore having a smaller HOMO-LUMO gap than that of at least a portion of the migration pathway and preferably smaller than a substantial portion of the migration pathway. Activation can also be caused when an analyte interacts or reacts with a partner, and the combination of analyte and partner is capable of activating the chromophore.

An example of a sensor that has the arrangement as shown in FIG. 1 is a sensor having a polymer of a first color. Upon activation, the chromophore can have a lower energy (red-shifted) that allows optimal energy transfer from the polymer. The activated chromophores exhibit a second color and the films have the appearance of the second color. Thus, it is an advantageous feature of the present invention that the polymer films can first amplify an emission by channeling all of the emission through a few activated luminescent species. In this way, only a small number of reporter chromophores need to be activated to effect a total change in an appearance of the polymer. Detection of analytes can be visually observed by a color change of the polymer films.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a sensor that is capable of detecting chemical warfare agents, and particularly agents that can be detected in a gaseous or liquid phase. In one embodiment, the sensor is specific for chemical warfare agents and insecticides having reactive phosphate ester groups. An example of a chemical warfare agent that can be detected according to the invention is sarin and an example of an insecticide is parathion.

FIG. 22 shows an example of groups that are reactive with phosphate ester groups found in chemical warfare agents and insecticides. Group 1130, upon reaction with a phosphate ester group 1132 results in cyclization to form group 1134. Typically, reporter chromophores groups 1130 have higher energy absorptions and are less emissive than reporter chromophores having group 1134. In the transformation from a less emissive to a more emissive group, the band gap changes from high to low. A specific example of group 1130 is group 1136 which undergoes cyclization upon reaction with phosphate ester groups through intermediate 1138 to produce the cyclized compound 1140. X can be Cl, F, or CN or other electron-withdrawing substituents; Y can be hydrogen or SiR₃; and Y₁ and Y₂ can be conjugated groups such as aromatic rings. Other examples of groups that are sensitive to phosphate esters are shown as groups 1142-1146, where Y can be hydrogen, an alkyl group or an alkoxy group, preferably methyl and methoxy and hydrogen. Y can also be SiR₃, which can provide selectivity to agents having X=fluorine.

In one embodiment, the article comprises a first layer of a first polymer and a second layer of a second polymer, the first layer being positioned adjacent a second layer. A chromophore is present in the first and second layers. An energy migration pathway is continuous through the first and second layers. This arrangement is similar to placing amplifiers in series. If an emission is initiated in one polymer and collected from another polymer, then a net amplification is the product of the amplification contributed by each of the two different polymers. FIG. 11A shows emission 950 at a first energy for a first polymer 951 and emission 952 at a second energy for a second polymer 953. Article 955 schematically shows polymers 951 and 953 placed in series, i.e. as a double layer, and energy can migrate along pathway 958 to provide amplified emission 954, which is a product of the emissions of polymers 951 and 953 (i.e. emission 950 times emission 952). FIG. 11B shows article 961 having a multi-layer, wherein energy migrates along pathway 962 resulting in enhanced emission 956 which is a product of the emission of each individual polymer. FIG. 12 shows a demonstration of enhanced sensitivity of a sensor for TNT. Polymer 532 is a donor polymer that exhibits a dominant absorbance at 430 nm and polymer 530 is an acceptor polymer having a dominant absorbance at 490 nm. Polymers 530 and 532 are placed in series. By exposing the double layer to a 490 nm excitation (specific for acceptor polymer 530), curve 536 is obtained. By exposing the resulting double layer to a 430 nm excitation (specific for donor polymer 532), energy can be amplified by traveling from a higher energy polymer to a lower energy polymer, and this amplification is demonstrated by the enhanced intensity curve 534. FIG. 13 shows a schematic of a multi-layer sensor 1010, having a gradient of energy band gaps as indicated by arrows 1012. Activated reporter chromophore 1011 emits enhanced intensity 1013.

The band gaps of the polymers can be tailored by varying the molecular structure and providing different substituted groups on the polymers. FIG. 14 shows a transporter chromophore A and a variety of polymers B-F and their resulting emissions. From FIG. 14, this class of polymers shows a range of emissions from approximately 380 nm to approximately 560 nm.

The polymer can be a homo-polymer or a co-polymer such as a random co-polymer or a block co-polymer. In one embodiment, the polymer is a block co-polymer. An advantageous feature of block co-polymers is that the effect of a multi-layer can be mimicked. Each block will have different band gap components and by nature of the chemical structure of a block co-polymer, each gap component is segregated. Thus, amplified emissions can be achieved with block co-polymers. Thus, a broad scope of structures can be produced. Band gaps, amplifications and selectivities for analytes can be achieved by modification or incorporation of different polymer types. The polymer compositions can vary continuously to give a tapered block structure and the polymers can be synthesized by either step growth or chain growth methods.

Another aspect of the invention provides methods for the determination of analytes which may have weak electrostatic interactions with and/or do not otherwise readily interact with conjugated polymers. For example, many of these analytes may be poor electron acceptors (e.g., have unfavorable reduction potentials) and may not readily interact with conjugated polymers via a charge transfer reaction, such as a photo-induced charge transfer reaction. In some embodiments, sensors and methods of the invention may facilitate (e.g., enhance, accelerate, etc.) charge transfer reactions between an analyte and a luminescent polymer. Examples of such analytes include, but are not limited to, those typically incorporated into plastic explosives formulations as well as a number of toxic industrial chemicals, various common organic solvents, and pesticide residues.

Accordingly, some embodiments of the invention provide sensors comprising luminescent polymers comprising a hydrogen-bond donor that can facilitate (e.g., enhance) interaction between a luminescent polymer and an analyte. The hydrogen-bond donor can interact with the analyte to form a complex between the hydrogen-bond donor and the analyte, and the complex may be capable of interacting with the luminescent polymer, whereas, in the absence of the hydrogen-bond donor, the analyte would be less capable of interacting with the luminescent polymer. In some cases, in the absence of the hydrogen-bond donor, the analyte would not be capable of interacting with the luminescent polymer. The complex may also be capable of causing the luminescent polymer to signal the presence of the analyte.

As used herein, the term “complex” refers to a species formed by the intermolecular association between at least two chemical moieties (e.g., between a hydrogen-bond donor and an analyte), wherein the association does not necessarily comprise formation of a covalent bond, but can comprise the formation of other types of bonds, including ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds (e.g., between hydroxyl, amine, carboxyl, thiol and/or similar functional groups, for example), dative bonds (e.g. complexation or chelation between metal ions and monodentate or multidentate ligands), or the like, and/or other types of interactions between chemical moieties wherein electrons are shared. In some embodiments, the hydrogen-bond donor may form a hydrogen bond with the analyte to form the complex. In some cases, the complex may be a charge transfer complex formed between the hydrogen-bond donor and the analyte.

Formation of the complex may cause a change in the properties of at least one of the chemical components of the complex. For example, the complex may comprise the hydrogen-bond donor and the analyte, wherein the properties of at least one or both of the hydrogen-bond donor and the analyte are changed. In one embodiment, the interaction between the hydrogen-bond donor and the analyte, i.e., to form the complex, may comprise a change in a property of the analyte. For example, the analyte may have a first reduction potential and, upon interaction with the hydrogen-bond donor to form the complex, the analyte may have a second reduction potential, wherein the second reduction potential may increase the ability of the analyte to interact with the luminescent polymer via, for example, a charge transfer reaction. In some embodiments, formation of the complex may cause an analyte to be brought or held in closer proximity to the luminescent polymer, thereby increasing the ability of the analyte to interact with the luminescent polymer.

In some embodiments, the ability of an analyte to interact with a luminescent polymer may depend on the relative reduction potentials of the analyte and the luminescent polymer. For example, in some cases, an analyte may act as a quencher for a luminescent polymer (e.g., “turn-off” mechanism) if the analyte has a LUMO which is lower in energy (e.g., low reduction potential ) relative to the conduction band of the luminescent polymer, allowing the polymer, in the excited-state, to transfer electrons in the conduction band to the LUMO of the analyte. That is, the excited-state luminescent polymer may be quenched by the analyte via electron transfer. In contrast, an analyte having a LUMO which is higher in energy (e.g., high reduction potential) relative to the conduction band of the luminescent polymer, the polymer, in the excited-state, may be unable to transfer electrons in the conduction band to the LUMO of the analyte. The reduction potential of the luminescent polymer may depend on, for example, the ionization potential and/or band gap of the polymer. In some cases, the analyte has a reduction potential which is made less negative (e.g., lowered) upon its interaction with a hydrogen-bond donor, such that the analyte may more readily interact with the luminescent polymer. That is, the hydrogen-bond donor may “activate” the analyte towards interaction with the luminescent polymer. Such interactions may enhance the response of the luminescent polymer to the analyte.

The hydrogen-bond donor may be associated with (e.g., bonded to) the luminescent polymer by various means, such as covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, dative bonds, or the like. In one embodiment, the hydrogen-bond donor is covalently bonded to the luminescent polymer.

Those of ordinary skill in the art would be able to identify hydrogen-bond donors suitable for use in the present invention. For example, hydrogen-bond donors may comprise an electron-poor group, such as fluorine, nitro, acyl, cyano, sulfonate, or the like, and optionally at least one hydrogen (e.g., acidic hydrogen) adjacent to the electron-poor group that may form a hydrogen-bond with an analyte to form the complex. Examples of hydrogen-bond donors include fluorinated alcohols, such as hexafluoroisopropanol.

In some embodiments, the hydrogen-bond donor may be chiral, such that the hydrogen-bond donor may selectively interact with a particular stereoisomer of an analyte.

Luminescent polymers comprising hydrogen-bond donors may be synthesized according to methods known in the art and as described herein. In an illustrative embodiment, FIG. 34 shows a schematic synthesis of a monomer having a hexafluoroisopropanol group and FIG. 35 shows a schematic synthesis of a monomer having two hexafluoroisopropanol groups. The polymerization of such monomers is shown in FIG. 36.

Examples of analytes which may interact with hydrogen-bond donors as described herein include, but are not limited to, heterocycles (e.g., nitrogen heterocycles), other nitrogen-containing compounds, such as compounds comprising nitro, nitrate, and/or nitrite groups. In some embodiments, the analyte comprises a heterocycle comprising nitrogen. Some specific examples of analytes may include 2,4-dinitrotoluene, 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene, 4-aminopyridine, N,N′-dimethylamino-pyridine, pyridine, or 2,4-dichloro-pyrimidine.

The terms “heterocyclyl” and “heterocyclic group” are recognized in the art and refer to 3- to about 10-membered ring structures, such as 3- to about 7-membered rings, whose ring structures include one to four heteroatoms. Examples of heterocyclyl groups include, for example, thiophene, thianthrene, furan, pyran, isobenzofuran, chromene, xanthene, phenoxathin, pyrrole, imidazole, pyrazole, isothiazole, isoxazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyrimidine, pyridazine, indolizine, isoindole, indole, indazole, purine, quinolizine, isoquinoline, quinoline, phthalazine, naphthyridine, quinoxaline, quinazoline, cinnoline, pteridine, carbazole, carboline, phenanthridine, acridine, pyrimidine, phenanthroline, phenazine, phenarsazine, phenothiazine, furazan, phenoxazine, pyrrolidine, oxolane, thiolane, oxazole, piperidine, piperazine, morpholine, lactones, lactams such as azetidinones and pyrrolidinones, sultams, sultones, and the like. The heterocyclic ring may be substituted at one or more positions with such substituents as described above, as for example, halogen, alkyl, aralkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, hydroxyl, amino, nitro, sulfhydryl, imino, amido, phosphonate, phosphinate, carbonyl, carboxyl, silyl, ether, alkylthio, sulfonyl, ketone, aldehyde, ester, a heterocyclyl, an aromatic or heteroaromatic moiety, CF₃, CN, or the like.

In some embodiments, sensors for analytes as described herein may comprise a luminescent polymer having the structure,

wherein R²⁷ and R²⁸ are independently alkyl, heteroalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted derivatives thereof, and n is at least 1 In some cases, n is at least 10, at least 100, at least 500, at least 1000, or at least 5000. In some embodiments, at least one of R²⁷ and R²⁸ comprises the structure,

wherein m is at least 1. In some embodiments, at least one of R²⁷ and R²⁸ has the structure,

In some embodiments, the luminescent polymer is a polyarylene, polyarylene vinylene, polyarylene ethynylene, ladder polymer, or substituted derivative thereof.

Another aspect of the present invention provides a polymer capable of emission, wherein the emission is variable and sensitive to a dielectric constant of a surrounding medium. FIG. 24 shows an example of a polymer substituted with fluorinated alcohol groups (e.g., HFIP) for hydrogen bonding with weak hydrogen bonded acceptors such as nitro groups. Chromophores having such fluorinated alcohol groups can experience an emission sensitive to dielectric constants and can be used to detect the binding of high explosives such as RDX (hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triaxine), PETN (2,2-bis[(nitrooxy)-methyl]-1,3-propanediol dinitrate (ester)) and other nitro-containing species.

Another aspect of the present invention provides a sensor having a reporter chromophore capable of emission, wherein the emission is variable and sensitive to an electric field of a medium surrounding the chromophore. Selective matching of energies involved in the energy migration pathway to a vast array of the activated and unactivated chromophores, as described above, can produce enhanced emissions.

Another embodiment of the present invention provides a formation of excimer and exciplex structures which will provide lower energy chromophores having an emission intensity that can be enhanced by energy migration. Exciplex structures can be used as a detector for cations. Referring to FIG. 25, a polymer can include a group that is capable of binding a cation, such as a crown ether. Cation bonding is enhanced when two crown ethers are used for binding. This arrangement results in increased interaction between the polymer backbones and possibly r-stacking interactions can occur. FIG. 25 shows a fluorescence spectra of a crown ether containing polymer before and after addition of potassium salts. A new band (indicated by the upward arrow) is the result of an excimer induced by potassium ions. Crown ethers of various sizes, as is well known in the art, can be used to selectively bind cations of different sizes. FIG. 26 shows a schematic for the synthesis of a polymer containing a crown ether, and FIG. 27 shows polymers 450-453 that incorporate groups capable of binding cations. Other mechanisms for the formation of exciplexes include the binding of aromatic analytes.

The function and advantage of these and other embodiments of the present invention will be more fuilly understood from the examples below. The following examples are intended to illustrate the benefits of the present invention, but do not exemplify the full scope of the invention.

EXAMPLE 1 Synthesis of Poly(phenyleneethynylene)s Linked to Polystyrene Resin Beads

All manipulations were performed under a nitrogen atmosphere using standard Schlenk techniques or a Inovative Technologies dry box. Tetrahydrofuran was distilled from sodium benzophenone under nitrogen. Toluene and diisopropylamine were distilled from sodium under nitrogen and then degassed. NMR spectra were recorded on a Varian VXR-500 spectrometer at 500 (¹H), 125 (¹³C) MHz using CDCl₃ as solvent. The chemical shifts are reported in ppm relative to TMS. Infrared spectra were collected as Nujol mulls on a Mattson Galaxy 3000 spectrometer, using KBr cells. Elemental analyses were performed by Desert Analytics. The molecular weights of polymers were determined using a Hewlett Packard series 1100 HPLC instrument equipped with a Plgel 5 mm Mixed-C (300×7.5 mm) column and a diode array detector at 245 nm at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min in THF. The molecular weights were calibrated relative to polystyrene standards purchased from Polysciences, Inc. Polymer thin films were spin cast onto 18×18 mm glass slides. UV-vis spectra were obtained using a Hewlett Packard 8452A diode array spectrophotometer. Fluorescence experiments were performed using a SPEX Fluorolog-t2 fluorometer (model FL 112, 450W xenon lamp) equipped with a model 1935B polarization kit. Polymer thin-film spectra were recorded by front face (22.5°) detection. Time decay of fluorescence was determined by a phase-modulation method, using frequencies between 10 and 310 MHz. The compounds were purchased from Aldrich.

The synthesis of a polymer in accordance with the invention is detailed here. Starting materials diisopropylamine (DIPA) and toluene were distilled from sodium. The compounds 4-iodobenzoic acid, N,N-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP), diisopropylcarbodiimide (DIC), Pd(PPh₃)₄, and CuI were purchased from Aldrich. The compounds 2,5-diethynyl-4-decyloxyanisole (10) and 1,4-dihexadecyloxy-2,5-diiodobenzene (20) were prepared according to literature procedures. The pentiptycene monomer (S) was prepared as outlined in Example 2. Aminomethylated polystyrene resin (200-400 mesh, 1.00 mmol/g) and Wang resin (200-400 mesh, 0.96 mmol/g) were purchased from Nova Biochem.

Preparation of 4-Iodo-Benzoic Acid Ethyl Ester. (40) A mixture of 4-iodobenzoic acid (10.0 g, 40.3 mmol), ethanol (100 mL) and concentrated H₂SO₄ (10 mL) was heated at reflux for 16 h. After cooling, excess solvent was removed from the reaction mixture under reduced pressure. The remaining oil was poured over ice (100 g) and the mixture was neutralized with a saturated solution of NaHCO₃. This mixture was extracted with hexane (200 mL). The hexane solution was washed with water (2×50 mL), dried over MgSO₄, and concentrated under reduced pressure. The remaining oil was distilled (110° C., 0.02 mm Hg) to give 10.06 g of the product as a colorless oil in 90% yield. ¹H NMR spectra and IR spectra are consistent with those reported in the literature.

Phenyliodide Functionalized Wang Resin. (E) Wang resin (0.200 g), 4-iodobenzoic acid (0.0952 g, 0.384 mmol), and DMAP (0.0235 g, 0.192 mmol) were placed in a 100 mL reaction vessel. The vessel was evacuated and refilled with Ar three times. Then, DMF (15 mL) was added followed by DIC (75 mL, 0.48 mmol) and the resulting mixture was shaken for 48 h. The solution was removed by filtration and the resin was washed with DMF (3×20 mL) and CH₂Cl₂ (3×20 mL). The resin was then dried under vacuum at 60° C. for 3 h.

Polymerization of Poly(phenyleneethynylene) on Phenyliodide Functionalized Resin. (F) A schematic of the polymerization is shown in FIG. 8(a). A 100 mL reaction vessel was charged with the phenyliodide functionalized Wang resin (0.050 g), 10 (0.055 g, 0.176 mmol), and 20 (0.159 g, 0.176 mmol). The flask was evacuated and refilled with Ar three times. In a dry box Pd(PPh₃)₄ (6.8 mg, 0.0059 mmol) and CuI (2.2 mg, 0.012 mmol) were added to the flask. DIPA (1.0 mL) followed by toluene (2.5 mL) were added to the reaction mixture. The solution rapidly became fluorescent yellow. The reaction mixture was heated at 60° C. for 16 h. The solution was then removed by filtration and the resin was washed with toluene (3×20 mL) and CHCl₃ (3×20 mL). The final washings were colorless. The highly fluorescent yellow resin beads were then dried under vacuum at 60° C. for 3 h. Emission (solid film, λ, nm): 485, 515.

The polymer that was rinsed away from the resin beads was precipitated into acetone (300 mL) and washed with methanol and hexane. UV-Vis (CHCl₃, λ, nm): 319, 454. Emission (CHCl₃, λ, nm): 477, 504.

Polymerization of Pentiptycene-derived Poly(phenyleneethynylene) on Phenyliodide Functionalized Resin. (G) A 100 mL reaction vessel was charged with the phenyliodide functionalized Wang resin (0.050 g), S (0.053 g, 0.111 mmol), and 20 (0.100 g, 0.123 mmol). The flask was evacuated and refilled with Ar three times. In a dry box Pd(PPh₃)₄ (4 mg, 0.004 mmol) and CuI (1 mg, 0.007 mmol) were added to the flask. DIPA (1.0 mL) followed by toluene (2.5 mL) were added to the reaction mixture. The reaction mixture was heated at 60° C. for 48 h. The solution was then removed by filtration and the resin was washed with toluene (3×20 mL) and CHCl₃ (3×20 mL). The final washings were colorless. The highly fluorescent yellow resin beads were then dried under vacuum at 60° C. for 3 h. Emission (solid film, λ, nm): 456, 479.

Ethyl Ester End Functionalized Poly(phenyleneethynylene). (H) A schematic of the polymerization is shown in FIG. 8(b). A 25 mL Schlenk flask was charged with 10 (0.180 g, 0.222 mmol), 20 (0.076 g, 0.24 mmol), and 40 (0.0123 g; 0.044 mmol). The flask was purged with Ar and then charged with Pd(PPh₃)₄ (13 mg, 0.011 mmol) and CuI (2.1 mg, 0.011 mmol). DIPA (1.0 mL) and toluene (2.5 mL) were added and the reaction mixture was heated at 60° C. for 14 h. The reaction mixture was added dropwise to vigorously stirred acetone (200 mL). The polymer was collected on a filter and washed with acetone, methanol, and hexane until the filtrate was no longer colored. The polymer was then dried under vacuum at 60° C. for 3 h to afford H (0.16 g) in 78% yield. UV-Vis (CHCl₃, λ, nm): 319, 452. Emission (CHCl₃, λ, nm): 476, 504.

Ethyl Ester End Functionalized Pentiptycene-derived poly(phenyleneethynylene). (I) A 25 mL Schlenk flask was charged with 30 (0.080 g, 0.167 mmol), 20 (0.123 g, 0.152 mmol), and 40 (0.0084 g; 0.030 mmol). The flask was purged with Ar and then charged with Pd(PPh₃)₄ (9 mg, 0.008 mmol) and CuI (1.4 mg, 0.008 mmol). DIPA (1.0 mL) and toluene (2.5 mL) were added and the reaction mixture was heated at 70° C. for 48 h. The reaction mixture was added dropwise to vigorously stirred acetone (300 mL). The polymer was collected on a filter and washed with acetone, methanol, and hexane until the filtrate was no longer colored. The polymer was then dried under vacuum at 60° C. for 3 h to afford I (0.14 g) in 83% yield. UV-Vis (CHCl₃, λ, nm): 336, 426. Emission (CHCl₃, λ, nm): 454, 482.

End Functionalized poly(phenyleneethynylene) (H) grafted onto aminomethylated polystyrene resin. (J). A schematic of this synthesis is shown in FIG. 8(b) A 25 mL flask was charged with aminomethylated polystyrene resin (0.050 g; 0.050 mmol), end functionalized poly(phenyleneethynylene) (H) (0.030 g), sodium methoxide (3.0 mg; 0.055 mmol), and toluene (7.0 mL). This mixture was heated at reflux for 24 h. The solution was then removed by filtration and the resin was washed with toluene (3×20 mL) and CHCl₃ (3×20 mL). The final washings were colorless. The highly fluorescent yellow resin beads were then dried under vacuum at 60° C. for 3 h. Emission (solid film, λ, nm): 462, 500.

End Functionalized Pentiptycene-derived poly(phenyleneethynylene) (I) grafted onto aminomethylated polystyrene resin. (K). A 25 mL flask was charged with aminomethylated polystyrene resin (0.050 g; 0.050 mmol), end functionalized poly(phenyleneethynylene) (I) (0.030 g), sodium methoxide (3.0 mg; 0.055 mmol), and toluene (7.0 mL). This mixture was heated to 110° C. for 24 h. The solution was then removed by filtration and the resin was washed with toluene (3×20 mL) and CHCl₃ (3×20 mL). The final washings were colorless. The highly fluorescent yellow resin beads were then dried under vacuum at 60° C. for 3 h.

EXAMPLE 2 Synthesis of Monomers and Polymer A, B and C

Syntheses of polymer A and B are outlined in FIG. 9(a) and the synthesis of polymer C is shown in FIG. 9(b).

General. All chemicals were of reagent grade. Benzoquinone was recrystallized in hexane before use. Anhydrous toluene and THF were purchased from Aldrich Chemical Co. Inc. NMR (¹H and ¹³C) spectra were recorded on Bruker AC-250, Varian Unity-300, or Varian VXR-500 Spectrometers, and chemical shifts are reported in ppm relative to TMS in proton spectra and to CHCl₃ in carbon spectra. UV-vis spectra were obtained from a Hewlett-Packard 8452A diode array spectrophotometer. Fluorescence studies were conducted with a SPEX Fluorolog-3 fluorometer.

Compounds L and M. To a mixture of anthracene (17.8 g, 0.1 mol) and benzoquinone (5.4 g, 0.05 mol) in a 200 mL round-bottom flask fitted with a condenser was added 75 mL of mesitylene. The mixture was refluxed for 24 h and then the solid was filtered after cooling to room temperature. The hydroquinone solid was digested in 100 mL of hot xylene twice and filtered (16.5 g). The crude hydroquinones (8 g) were dissolved in hot glacial acetic acid (ca 300 mL) and then a solution of 1.5 g of potassium bromate (9 mmol) in 100 mL of hot water was added. A deep orange color and precipitate developed immediately. The solution was boiled for a few minutes and then an additional 100 mL of hot water was added and the heat was removed. The orange quinone solid was collected after the solution was cooled. The quinones were washed with acetic acid and then with water. The crude quinones were dissolved in chloroform (ca. 120 mL) and washed with sodium bicarbonate and brine. The organic layer was separated and dried (MgSO₄). The dark-colored impurities were removed by filtering the chloroform solution through a thin layer of silica gel. The resulting orange solution was adsorbed onto ca. 50 g of silica gel. The resulting yellow silica gel solid mixture was chromatographed using hexane/ethyl acetate (5:1) as the eluent to obtain 80-95% pure of compound L, which can be further purified by column chromatography using pure chloroform as the eluent. Compound M stays with silica gel and was obtained with 97-100% pure by re-dissolving the silica gel solid mixture in chloroform and then the removal of silica gel and chloroform solvent. The overall yields for L and M were 13% and 39%, respectively. Compound L: (mp=294.0° C., lit=292-296° C.).

Compounds N, O, and P. A mixture of pentacene (0.96 g, 3.45 mmol) and quinone (1.27 g, 4.49 mmol) in 3 mL of toluene was refluxed for 3 days and then cooled. The resulting yellow solid (1.87 g) was filtered and washed with hexane. The solid was placed in a round-bottom flask and ca. 80 mL of glacial acetic acid was added and then the solution was heated to reflux and then 5-10 drops of HBr (48%) was added. The color of solution faded in a short period of time. The solution was cooled after 30 min and then any undissolved solid was filtered off. The filtrate was then reheated again and potassium bromate (0.3 g in 20 mL hot water) was added. The solution was boiled for a few minutes and then 10 mL more of hot water was added and the heat was removed. The orange quinone solid was collected and washed with acetic acid and water. Column chromatography using pure chloroform as eluent allowed the separation of P from the mixture of N and O, which can be separated by another column chromatography using a mixed solvent of chloroform and hexane (2:1).

Compounds Q and R. A general procedure is illustrated by the synthesis of Q. Under an atmosphere of argon, one equivalent of n-butyllithium (2.5 mmol) in hexane was added dropwise to a solution of (trimethylsilyl)acetylene (0.35 mL, 2.5 mmol) in THF at 0° C. The mixture was then kept at 0° C. for another 40 min before it was transferred to a solution of quinone M (0.46 g, 1 mmol) in THF at 0° C. The mixture was warmed up to room temperature and stirred overnight. The reaction was quenched with 1 mL of 10% HCl and then subjected to a CHCl₃/H₂O workup. The solvent was removed and hexane was then added to the residue. The resulting white solid (0.59 g, 90%, 0.90 mmol), which is a mixture of the trans and cis isomers, was collected by filtration. This crude solid was dissolved in 10 mL acetone and then a solution of tin(II)chloride dihydrate (0.51 g, 2.25 mmol) in 50% of acetic acid (10 mL) was added dropwise. This mixture was stirred at room temperature for another 24 h and the resulting solid product was filtered. The solid was then dissolved in CHCl₃ and washed with water, sodium bicarbonate and then dried (MgSO₄). The CHCl₃ was removed in vacuo and the residue was washed with hexane to remove the yellow impurities. The resulting white solid was collected (yield 85%).

Compounds S and T. The deprotection of trimethylsilyl group was carried out by dissolving compounds Q or R in a mixture of KOH (two tablets in 1 mL H2O), THF, and MeOH and stirring at room temperature for 5 h. The resulting solid product was filtered and washed with water and then dried in vacuo.

Polymers A, B, and C. A general procedure is illustrated by the synthesis of polymer A. Under an atmosphere of argon, diisopropylamine/toluene (2:3, 2.5 mL) solvent was added to a 25 mL Schlenk flask containing compound S (40 mg, 0.084 mmol), 1,4-bis(tetradecanyloxyl)-2,5-diiodobenzene (63 mg, 0.084 mmol), CuI (10 mg, 0.053 mmol), and Pd(Ph₃)₄ (10 mg, 0.0086 mmol). This mixture was heated at 65° C. for three days and then subjected to a CHCl₃/H₂O workup. The combined organic phase was washed with NH₄Cl, water and then dried (MgSO₄). The solvent was removed in vacuo, and the residue was reprecipitate in methanol three times. The polymer was a yellow solid (76 mg, 75%).

EXAMPLE 3 Synthesis of the Monomer 1,4-Dinaphthyl-2,5-diacetylidebenzene (DD)

An overall scheme is depicted in FIG. 10(b).

1,4-Dibromo-2,5-dinaphthylbenzene (AA). Adapted from literature procedure reported by M. Goldfinger et al. A 100 ml Schlenk flask was charged with 1,4-dibromo-2,5-diiodobenzene (0.93 g, 1.91 mmol), naphthalene boronic acid (0.72 g, 4.19 mmol), triphenylphosphine (0.075 g, 0.29 mmol), palladium tetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.022 g, 0.019 mmol), and KOH (2.2 g, 39 mmol). To this mixture, 5 mL deionized H₂O and 20 mL nitrobenzene were introduced via syringes. The resulting mixture was initially purged with a rapid stream of Argon, then was evacuated and refilled with argon five times before it was heated to 90° C. in an oil bath. After maintaining at this temperature for 24 hrs, the solvent was removed by distillation under high vacuum. The residue was transferred into a filtration funnel and successively washed with 100 mL H₂O, 20 mL acetone and 20 mL cold chloroform. Drying of the rinsed solids under vacuum afforded an off-white powder (0.65 g, 70%).

1,4-Diiodo-2,5-dinaphthylbenzene (BB): At −78° C., AA (0.3 g, 0.61 mmol) was poured into a Schlenk flask containing t-BuLi (3mL, 1.7 M in hexanes) and 15 mL THF. The resulting mixture was allowed to warm up to −40° C. and stirred at this temperature for 1 hr. At this temperature, I₂ (1.5 g, 5.9 mmol) crystals were added in one portion under strong argon flow. The deep red solution was stirred at room temperature for four hours before it was quenched by adding dilute sodium hydrosulfite solution. The solvent was removed under vacuum and the residual solid was washed with water, acetone, and chloroform sequentially to give a pale white powder (0.16 g, 50%).

1,4-Dinaphthyl-2,5-di((trimethylsilyl)ethynyl)benzene (CC): Under an argon atmosphere, BB (0.14 g, 0.24 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (8.5 mg, 0.012 mmol), and CuI (0.005 g, 0.024 mmol) were mixed in 1 mL HN(iPr)₂ and 5 mL toluene. Trimethylsilylacetylene (0.071 g, 0.72 mmol) was then introduced into the mixture via a syringe. The resulting brown solution was heated to 70° C. for two hours before it was cooled down and filtered to remove insoluble iodium salts. The filtrate was concentrated, loaded onto a silica gel column and eluted with the mixture of hexanes and chloroform (10:1) to give a light yellow solid (0.1 g, 80%).

1,4-Dinaphthyl-2,5-diacetylidebenzene (DD): A solution of potassium hydroxide (150 mg, 2.67 mmol) in 2 mL H₂O and 8 mL MeOH was added dropwise to a solution of 3 in 16 mL THF under magnetic stirring. After the clear solution was stirred at room temperature overnight the solvent was removed under vacuum. The residue was dissolved in CHCl₃, washed with H₂O and concentrated. Trituration of the solid with acetone, filtration of the precipitate, and drying the product under high vacuum gave a essentially pure off-white solid (0.041 g, 54%).

EXAMPLE 4 Polymer Synthesis from Monomer DD

A schematic of this synthesis is shown in FIG. 10(a). A Schlenk flask was charged with DD (0.019 g, 0.049 mmol), 1,4-ditetradecyloxy-2,5-diiodobenzene (0.035 g, 0.049 mmol), palladium tetrakistriphenylphosphine (0.0056 g, 0.0048 mmol), CuI (0.001 g, 0.0053 mmol), 1.5 mL toluene, and 1 mL HN(iPr)₂. The heterogeneous mixture was initially stirred at room temperature for 20 min then heated to 70° C. for 48 hrs. The resulting brownish fluorescent solution was precipitated in MeOH and the polymer precipitate was isolated by suction filtration. Reprecipitation of the polymer in acetone from chloroform give a brown polymer (0.03 g, 71%).

EXAMPLE 5 Synthesis of Triphenylene-Based Monomers

FIGS. 30 and 31 schematically show the synthesis of triphenylene-based monomers having acetylene polymerization units.

The compound 1,2-didecyloxybenzene (1a) was prepared according to literature procedures.

1,2-di(2-ethylhexyloxy)benzene (1b). In a 2 L flask were combined 2-ethylhexylbromide (127.9 mL, 0.719 mol), KI (21.71 g, 0.131 mol), K₂CO₃ (180.8 g, 1.31 mol), and chatechol (36.0 g, 0.327 mol). The flask was purged with N₂ for 10 min. and 1 L butanone was added. The mixture was heated at reflux for 22 d. The reaction mixture was then filtered and the solids washed with ether. The filtrate was washed several times with water, dried (MgSO₄) and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was distilled (80° C./0.02 mmHg) to give 1,2-di(2-ethylhexyloxy)benzene (1b) as a colorless oil in 79% yield.

1,2-diethoxybenzene (1c). The synthesis of this compound was initiated similarly to the synthesis of 1b. The reaction mixture was stirred at room temperature for 2d. The reaction mixture was then filtered and the solids were rinsed with ether. The filtrate was washed with dilute aqueous KOH and several times with water. The organic fraction was dried (MgSO₄) and concentrated under reduced pressure. The crude product was distilled (80° C./5 mmHg) to give 1,2-diethoxybenzene (1c) as a colorless crystalline solid in 11% yield (mp=40.0-40.5).

4-bromo-1,2-didecyloxybenzene (2a). A CH₃CN solution (100 mL) of NBS (13,67 g, 76.80 mmol) was added dropwise to a CH₃CN solution (300 mL) of 1a (30.00 g, 76.80 mmol). The mixture was stirred at reflux for 12 h in the absence of light. The reaction mixture was cooled and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residue was extracted with ether, washed with a saturated NaHCO₃ solution and water. After drying with MgSO₄ the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. Crystallization from THF/MeOH afforded colorless crystals of 4-bromo-1,2-didecyloxybenzene (2a) in 93% yield (mp 39.5-40° C.).

4-bromo-1,2-di(2-ethylhexyloxy)benzene (2b). Solid NBS (26.21 g, 0.147 mol) was added to an ice cold CH₂Cl₂ solution (250 mL) of 1b under N₂ in the absence of light. Just enough DMF was added (30 mL) to disolve the NBS. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature and then stirred for 12 h. The mixture was then poured into water. The organic layer was washed with a saturated LiCl solution and water. After drying with MgSO4 the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The remaining oil was distilled (160° C./ 0.01 mmHg) to yield 4-bromo-1,2-di(2-ethylhexyloxy)benzene (2b) in 96% yield as a colorless oil.

4-bromo-1,2-diethoxybenzene (2c). Compound 4-bromo-1,2-diethoxybenzene (2c) was prepared according to the procedure for the synthesis of 2b. The crude product was distilled (75° C./0.03 mmHg) to give 2c as a colorless oil in 86% yield.

3,3′,4,4′-tetrakisdecyloxybiphenyl (3a). A hexane solution of ^(n)BuLi (1.57 M, 1.02 mL) was added dropwise to a THF solution (50 mL) of 2a which had been precooled to −30° C. Once the addition was complete the reaction mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature. After stirring for an additional 12 h the reaction mixture was poured into water and extracted with ether. The ether layer was washed with water and dried with MgSO₄. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The residue was crystallized from a THF/MeOH mixture at −15° C. to give colorless crystals of 3,3′,4,4′-tetrakisdecyloxybiphenyl (3a) in 38% yield (mp 85-86° C.).

3,3′,4,4′-tetrakis(2-ethylhexyl)biphenyl (3b). A THF solution (500 mL) of 2b (46.32 g, 0.112 mol) was cooled to −60° C., and a hexane solution of ^(n)BuLi (143 mL, 1.57 M, 0.224 mol) was added. The mixture was allowed to warm to 0° C. over 1 h and then stir at that temperature for 1 h. The solution was then cooled to −60° C. and CuCl₂ (30.12 g, 0.224 mol) was added. The mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature over 1 h and was then heated at reflux for 12 h. The reaction mixture was cooled to room temperature and poured into dilute HCl. This mixture was extracted twice with ether. The combined organic fractions were washed with water, dried with MgSO4, and filtered through a short plug of silica. Solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the remaining oil was purified by column chromatography using a 2% ether/98% hexane solvent mixture to afford 3b (RF=0.26) as a slightly yellow oil in 51% yield.

3,3′,4,4′-tetraethoxybiphenyl (3c). Compound 3c was prepared by the same method described for 3b using 2c as starting material. The crude product was crystallized from THF/MeOH to afford 3c as colorless plates in 66% yield (mp=140-141° C.).

1,4-dimethoxy-6,7,10,11-tetrakis(decyloxy)triphenylene (4a). Solid 3a (5.50 g, 7.06 mmol) was added to an ice cold suspension of anhydrous FeCl₃ (9.16 g, 56.5 mmol) in dry CH₂Cl₂ (250 mL). Within 2 min 1,4-dimethoxybenzene (3.90 g, 28.2 mmol) was added to the green reaction mixture. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm slowly to room temperature and then stir for an additional 12 h. The reaction mixture was quenched with anhydrous MeOH (30 mL). The volume of the mixture was reduced to 50 mL under reduced pressure and MeOH (200 mL) was added to the resulting oil. The slightly violet product was colled on a frit and washed with MeOH. The product was further purified by column chromatography using a 50% CH₂Cl₂/50% hexane solvent mixture to afford 4a (RF=0.24) as a colorless solid in 84% yield (mp 69-70° C.).

1,4-dimethoxy-6,7,10,11-tetrakis(2-ethylhexyloxy)triphenylene (4b). The reaction to produce 4b was initiated as described for 4a. After quenching the reaction with anhydrous MeOH the volume of the mixture was reduced under reduced pressure. The remaining mixture was poured into water and extracter twice with ether. The ether fractions were washed with water, dried with MgSO₄, and concentrated under reduced pressure. The remaining solid was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (1:3 CH₂Cl₂/hexane) to afford 4b as a colorless waxy solid in 28% yield (mp=54-56° C.).

1,4-dimethoxy-6,7,10,11-tetraethoxytriphenylene (4c). Compound 4c was prepared according to the procedure for the synthesis of 4b. The product was crystallized from THF/MeOH at −15° C. to afford colorless needles in 30% yield (mp 157-157.5° C.).

6,7,10,11-tetrakis(decyloxy)triphenylene-1,4-dione (5a). An aqueous solution (1 mL) of (NH₄)₂Ce(NO₃)₆ (0.035 g, 0.064 mmol) was added dropwise to a THF solution (5 mL) of 4a (0.029 g, 0.032 mmol). The reaction mixture immediately turned deep red. After 6 h the reaction mixture was poured into ether and washed with a saturated solution of NaHCO₃ and water. The organic layer was dried with MgSO₄ and the solvent removed under reduced pressure. The crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (1:1 CH₂Cl₂/hexane) to afford 5a as a deep red solid in 80% yield (mp 86-87° C.).

6,7,10,11-tetrakis(2-ethylhexyloxy)triphenylene-1,4-dione (5b). Compound 5b was prepared by the method described for 5a in 55% yield (mp=105-107° C.).

6,7,10,11-tetraethoxytriphenylene-1,4-dione (5c). Compound 5c was prepared by the method described for 5a in 58% yield (mp 188-190° C.).

6,7,10,11-tetrakis(decyloxy)-1,4-di(2-trimethylsilylacetylene)triphenylene (6a). A hexane solution of ^(n)BuLi (2.77 mL, 1.57 M, 4.35 mmol) was added to a THF solution (15 mL) of trimethylsilylacetylene (0.615 mL, 4.35 mmol) which had been precooled to −78° C. The mixture was allowed to warm to −10° C. and stirred at that temperature for 30 min. The solution was then cooled to −78° C. and a THF solution (10 mL) of 5a was added dropwise. During the addition the red color of the quinone dissipated. After the addition was complete the reaction mixture was allowed to warm to room temperature and then stirred for an additional 12 h. The reaction mixture was then poured into ether and enough dilute HCl was added to make the solution slightly acidic. The organic layer was then quickly washed with several portions of water and dried with MgSO₄. The solvent was removed under reduced pressure and the remaining light brown oil was dissolved in acetone (50 mL). To this solution was added dropwise a solution of SnCl₂.2 H₂O (0.851 g, 3.77 mmol) in 50% HOAc (10 mL). After 12 h the reaction mixture was poured into ether and washed with water, a saturated solution of NaHCO₃ and again water. The organic layer was dried with MgSO₄ and the solvent was removed under reduced pressure. The product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (1:3 CH₂Cl₂/hexane) to afford 6a as a viscous yellow oil in 38% yield.

6,7,10,11-tetrakis(2-ethylhexyloxy)triphenylene-1,4-di(2-trimethylsilyl) acetylene (6b). Compound 6b was prepared by the method described for 6a using 5b as starting material. Compound 6b was obtained as a yellow oil in 97% yield.

Compound 6c was prepared by the method described for 6a using 5c as starting material. (6c: R=ethyl)

6,7,10,11-tetrakis(decyloxy)-1,4-ethynyltriphenylene (7a). An aqueous solution (1 mL) of KOH (0.30g) was added to a 1:1 THF/MeOH solution (20 mL) of 6a (0.477 g, 0.475 mmol). The reaction mixture was allowed to stir for 12 h. It was then poured into ether and washed with water. The organic layer was dried with MgSO₄ and the solvent removed under reduced pressure. The product was purified by flash chromatography on silica gel using a 1:3 CH₂Cl₂/hexane solvent mixture. Compound 7a was obtained as a colorless solid in 81% yield (mp 68-69° C.).

6,7,10,11-tetrakis(2-ethylhexyloxy)-1,4-ethynyltriphenylene (7b). Compound 7b was prepared by the method described for 7a using 6b as starting material. Compound 7b was obtained as a yellow oil in 89% yield.

Compound 7c was prepared by the method described for 7a using 6c as starting material. (7c: R=ethyl)

(10a). Compound 5a (0.516 g, 0.584 mmol) was dissolved in 1,3-cyclohexadiene (10 mL). The mixture was heated to 80° C. for 12 h. The excess 1,3-cyclohexadiene was then removed under reduced pressure. The remaining viscous oil was transferred to a hydrogenation vessel (50 mL capacity) along with CH₂Cl₂ (10 mL) and 10% Pd on carbon (10 mg). This mixture was degassed and then shaken under H₂ (40 psi) for 24 h. The reaction mixture was then filtered through a short plug of silica and evaporated to dryness. The remaining solid was added to glacial acetic acid (40 mL) and heated to 100° C. Two drops of concentrated HBr were added causing the solution to turn dark red. After 5 min an aqueous solution (10 mL) of KBrO₃ (0.016 g, 0.096 mmol) was added and the mixture was heated for an additional 10 min. The solution was allowed to cool and then extracted with two portions of CH₂Cl₂. The combined organic fractions were washed with water, dried with MgSO₄, and evaporated to dryness. The crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using a 1:9 ether/hexane solvent mixture affording 10a (R=n-Decyl) in 54% yield. By this method, the reaction proceeds through intermediates 8a and 9a.

(10b). Compound 10b (R=2-ethylhexyl) was prepared by the method described for 10a using 5b as starting material. The reaction proceeds through intermediates 8b and 9b. Compound 10b was obtained as a dark red viscous oil in 84% yield.

(12a). Compound 11a (R=n-Decyl) was prepared by the method described for 6a using 10a as starting material. Compound 11a was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using a 1:49 ether/hexane solvent mixture. The product was then converted to the diacetylene (12a: R=n-Decyl) by the method described for 7a. The crude diacetylene was purified by column chromatography on silica gel using a 1:19 ether/hexane solvent mixture to afford 12a as a light orange solid in an overall 53% yield (mp 48.5-49.5° C.).

Compound 11b was prepared by the method described for 6a using 10b as starting material. (11b: R=2-ethylhexyl)

(12b). Compound 12b (R=2-ethylhexyl) was prepared by the method described for 12a using 10b as starting material. Compound 12b was obtained as a light yellow oil in an overall 56% yield from 10b.

1,4-diiodo -2,3,5,6-tetraalkoxybenzene:

To the solution of dibromotetraoctoxybenzene (3g, 4.0 mmol) in 20 ml THF, n-Buli (10 ml, 16 mmol) was added via a syringe at −78 C. The solution was allowed to warm up slowly to 0 C and stirred at this temperature for 40 min. Then I₂ crystals were poured into the solution in two portions. After the purple solution was stirred at room temperature overnight, the excess I2 was removed by washing with 10% NaOH solution. The resulting colorless solution was dried with MgSO4 and concentrated under vaccum to give a cotton-like solid (3 g, 91%).

1,4-Bis-[(trimethylsilyl)ethynyl]-2,3,5,6-tetraalkoxybenzene:

Under an argon atomsphere, 1,4-diiodo-2,3,5,6-tetraalkoxybenzene (1 g, 1.19 mmol), Pd(PPh₃)₂Cl₂ (41 mg, 0.058 mmol), and CuI (22 mg, 0.12 mmol) were mixed in 10 mL HN(^(i)Pr)2 and 5 mL toluene. Trimethylsilylacetylene (0.42 ml, 2.97 mmol) was then introduced into the mixture via a syringe. The resulting brown solution was heated to 70° C. for two hours before it was cooled down and filtered to remove insoluble iodium salts. The filtrate was concentrated, loaded onto a silica gel column and eluted with the mixture of hexanes and chloroform (10:1) to give a light yellow oil (0.78 g, 83%).

2,3,5,6-Tetraalkoxy -1,4-diacetylidebenzene:

A solution of potassium hydroxide (150 mg, 2.67 mmol) in 2 mL H₂O and 8 mL MeOH was added dropwise to a solution of the yellow oil above in 16 mL THF under magnetic stirring. After the solution was stirred at room temperature overnight, the solvent was removed under vacuum. The residue was dissolved in CHCl₃, washed with H₂O and concentrated. The resulting green solid was chromatographed on a silica gel column with the mixture of hexanes and chloroform to afford a off-white solid (0.52 g, 85%).

FIG. 32 shows examples of triphenylene-based polymers that can be prepared by the monomers described above using standard palladium-catalyzed techniques.

EXAMPLE 6

Compounds 25, 27, 29, and 30 and polymers P2-P3 were synthesized and studied according to the following general methods and instrumentation. All chemicals were of reagent grade from Aldrich Chemical Co. (St. Louis, Mo.), Strem Chemicals, Inc. (Newburyport, Mass.) or Oakwood Products Inc. (West Columbia, S.C.) and used as received. All synthetic manipulations were performed under an argon atmosphere using standard Schlenk line or drybox techniques unless otherwise noted. Dichloromethane and toluene were obtained from J. T. Baker and purified by passing through a Glasscontour dry solvent system. Glassware was oven dried before use. Column chromatography was performed using Baker 40 μm silica gel. All organic extracts were dried over MgSO4 and filtered prior to removal with a rotary evaporator.

Tetrakis(triphenylphosphine)palladium(0) was purchased from Strem and used as received. Grubbs' 2nd generation catalyst [1,3-bis-(2,4,6-trimethylphenyl)-2-imidazolidin-ylidene)dichloro(phenylmethylene)-(tri-cyclohexylphosphine)ruthenium(II)] was purchased from Aldrich. Compounds 24, 28, and polymer P1 were prepared according to procedures described in Kim et al., Macromolecules 1999, 32, 1500-1507; Kim, et al., Nature 2001, 411, 1030-1034; Jones, et al., J. Chem. Soc. 1953, 713-715; Zhou, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1995, 117, 12593; and Yang, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1998, 120, 11864-11873. Compound 31 was purchased from Nomadics Inc. (Stillwater, Okla.).

¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR, and ¹⁹F NMR spectra were obtained on Varian Mercury (300 MHz), Bruker Avance-400 (400 MHz), and Varian Inova (500 MHz) instruments. NMR chemical shifts are referenced to CHC¹³/TMS (7.27 ppm for ¹H, 77.23 ppm for ¹³C). For ¹⁹F NMR spectra, trichlorofluoromethane was used as an external standard (0 ppm) and upfield shifts are reported as negative values. Mass spectra (MS) were obtained at the MIT Department of Chemistry Instrumentation Facility (DCIF) using a peak-matching protocol to determine the mass and error range of the molecular ion.

All polymer solutions were filtered through 0.45 micron syringe filters prior to use. Polymer molecular weights were determined at room temperature on a HP series 1100 GPC system in THE at 1.0 mL/min (1 mg/mL sample concentrations) equipped with a diode array detector (254 nm and 450 nm) and a refractive index detector. Polymer molecular weights are reported relative to polystyrene standards. Polymer thin films were spin-cast from a 1 mg/mL polymer solution in chloroform at 2000 rpm onto microscope cover slips (18×18 mm) or on the inside of glass capillaries (for FIDO experiments).

UV/vis spectra were recorded on an Agilent 8453 diode-array spectrophotometer and corrected for background signal with either a solvent-filled cuvette (for solution measurements) or a clean glass cover slip (for thin film measurements). Emission spectra were acquired on a SPEX Fluorolog-τ3 fluorometer (model FL-321, 450 W Xenon lamp) using either right angle detection (solution measurements) or front face detection (thin film measurements). Fluorescence quantum yields of solutions were determined by comparison to appropriate standards and are corrected for solvent refractive index and absorption differences at the excitation wavelength. Time resolved fluorescence measurements were performed at the MIT Institute for Solider Nanotechnologies (Cambridge, Mass.) by exciting solution and thin film samples with 180 femtosecond pulses at 392 nm, the doubled output of a Coherent RegA Ti:Sapphire amplifier operating at 250 kHz. The resulting fluorescence was spectrally and temporally resolved with a Hamamatsu C4770 Streak Camera system.

Melting points were measured with a Meltemp II apparatus and are reported uncorrected.

EXAMPLE 7

Compound 25 was synthesized according to the following method. Into a 25 mL roundbottom flask, fitted with a refluxing condenser and a magnetic stirring bar, were added 0.90 g (1.8 mmol) of 1, 0.87 g (5.8 mmol) of 5-bromo-1-pentene, 0.30 g (2.2 mmol) of potassium carbonate, 0.12 g (0.7 mmol) of potassium iodide, and 20 mL of 2-butanone. The suspension was heated to reflux for 18 hours. After cooling to room temperature, water (50 mL) and ethyl ether (50 mL) were added. The organic layer was extracted into ethyl ether (3×50 mL), washed with water (3×50 mL) and dried to yield a green oil. The crude product was purified by column chromatography (0-10% CH₂Cl₂ in hexanes) to yield 0.78 g (76%) of a colorless crystalline solid. mp: 293° C. ¹H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 7.18 (s, 2H), 5.80-5.87 (m, 1H), 5.05-5.14 (m, 1H), 5.00-5.05 (m, 1H), 3.94 (dd, 4H, J=6, 12 Hz), 2.25-2.35 (m, 2H), 1.85-1.95 (m, 2H), 1.75-1.85 (m, 2H), 1.43-1.55 (m, 4H), 1.23-1.44 (m, 10H), 0.85-0.92 (m, 3H). ¹³C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 153.1, 152.9, 137.9, 122.9, 122.8, 115.6, 86.5, 86.4, 70.5, 69.6, 32.1, 30.3, 29.8, 29.7, 29.5, 29.4, 29.3, 28.5, 26.2, 22.9, 14.4. MS (EI): calcd for C₂₁H₃₂I₂O₂ (M⁺), 570.0486; found 570.0460.

EXAMPLE 8

Compound 27 was synthesized according to the following method. Into a 25 mL Schlenk tube with a magnetic stirring bar were added 0.10 g (0.2 mmol) of compound 25, and 0.01 g (0.01 mmol) of Grubbs' 2nd generation catalyst. A solution of 1,1,1-trifluoro-2-(trifluoromethyl)-pent-4-en-2-ol (compound 26) 0.37 g (1.8 mmol) in 0.5 mL, CH₂Cl₂ was added and the reaction mixture was heated to 65° C. for 18 hours. After cooling to room temperature, the solvent was removed and the crude product was purified by column chromatography (0-10% ethyl acetate in hexanes) to yield 0.09 g (67%) of a colorless solid. mp: 51-52° C. ¹H NMR (500 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 7.18 (m, 2H), 5.82-5.94 (m, 1H), 5.48-5.56 (m, 111), 3.94 (m, 4H), 2.94 (s, 1H), 2.70 (d, 2H, J=8 Hz), 2.34-2.42 (dd, 2H), J=7, 14), 1.881.96 (m, 2H), 1.78-1.84 (m, 2H), 1.46-1.54 (m, 2H), 1.25-1.40 (m, 12 H), 0.85-0.92 (m, 3H). ¹³C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 153.3, 152.7, 139.7, 123.1, 122.9, 120.2, 86.5, 86.4, 70.5, 69.6, 33.8, 32.1, 29.8, 29.7, 29.6, 29.5, 29.4, 29.3, 28.7, 26.2, 24.1, 22.9, 14.3. ¹⁹F NMR (282 MHz, CDCl₃): −76.9, −77.1 (two isomers). MS (EI): calcd for C₂₅H₃₄F₆I₂O₃ (M⁺), 750.0496; found 750.0478.

EXAMPLE 9

Compound 29 was synthesized according to the following method. Into a 25 mL roundbottom flask, fitted with a refluxing condenser and a magnetic stirring bar, were added 0.20 g (0.6 mmol) of 5, 0.50 g (3.4 mmol) of 5-bromo-1-pentene, 0.20 g (1.4 mmol) of potassium carbonate, 0.08 g (0.5 mmol) of potassium iodide, and 6 mL, of 2-butanone. The suspension was heated to reflux for 18 hours. After cooling to room temperature, water (50 mL) and ethyl ether (50 mL) were added. The organic layer was extracted into ethyl ether (3×50 mL), washed with water (3×50 mL) and dried to yield a green oil. The crude product was purified by column chromatography (0-5% ethyl acetate in hexanes) to yield 0.23 g (85%) of colorless crystals. mp: 41-42° C. ¹NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: S 7.18 (s, 2H), 5.80-5.95 (m, 2H), 5.05-5.14 (m, 2H), 4.98-5.05 (m, 2H), 3.95 (t, 4H, J=6), 2.26-2.37 (dd, 4H, J=7, 14), 1.86-1.98 (m, 4H). ¹³C NMR (75 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 152.9, 137.8, 122.9 115.6, 86.5, 69.5, 30.3, 28.5. MS (ESI): calcd for C₁₆H₂₀I₂O₂ (M+Na)⁺, 520.9445; found 520.9455.

EXAMPLE 10

Compound 30 was synthesized according to the following method. Into a 50 mL Schlenk tube with a magnetic stirring bar were added 0.50 g (1.0 mmol) of compound 29, and 0.08 g (0.1 mmol) of Grubbs' 2nd generation catalyst. A solution of 1,1,1-trifluoro-2-(trifluoromethyl)-pent-4-en-2-ol (compound 26) 3.13 g (15.0 mmol) in 2.5 mL, CH₂Cl₂ was added and the reaction mixture was heated to 65° C. for 48 hours. After cooling to room temperature, the solvent was removed and the crude product was purified by column chromatography (0-33% ethyl acetate in hexanes) to yield an oily paste. Trituration with hexanes afforded 0.1 g (12%, first crop) of colorless crystals. mp: 125-126° C. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 7.17 (s, 2H), 5.80-5.88 (m, 2H), 5.48-5.55 (m, 2H), 3.96 (t, 4H, J=6 Hz), 2.94 (s, 2H), 2.69-2.71 (d, 4H, J=8 Hz), 2.34-2.42 (dd, 4H, J=7, 14), 1.90-1.94 (m, 4H). ¹³C NMR (100 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 153.0, 139.7, 123.1, 120.3, 86.5, 69.5, 33.7, 29.4, 28.7. ¹⁹F NMR (282 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: −76.9. MS (ESI): calcd for C₂₄H₂₄F₁₂I₂O₄ (M+Na)⁺, 880.9465; found 880.9459.

EXAMPLE 11

A general procedure for the synthesis of polymers P2 and P3 is illustrated by the synthesis of polymer P2, as described below. Polymer P3 was prepared in a similar manner from monomers 30 and 31. All polymers were characterized by ¹H and ¹⁹F NMR spectroscopy, gel permeation chrmoatography (GPC), as well as UV-VIS, and fluorescence spectroscopy.

Into a 25 mL Schlenk tube with a magnetic stirring bar were added compound 4 (15 mg, 0.02 mmol), compound 5 (9.7 mg, 0.02 mmol), and small amounts of copper iodide (<1 mg), and Pd(PPh₃)₄ (<1 mg). A deoxygenated solution of 3:2 (v/v) 4 Solvents were deoxygenated by vigorous argon bubbling for 20 minutes. toluene/diisopropylamine (0.750 mL) was then added. The tube was sealed and heated to 65° C. for 72 hours. After cooling to room temperature, the reaction mixture was precipitated by slow addition to 20 mL of methanol. The precipitate was isolated by centrifugation and decantation of the supernatant. The precipitate was washed with several 20 mL portions of methanol to remove any short oligomers. The material was dried under vacuum to yield a yellow solid (17 mg, 87%).

P2: GPC (THF): M_(n)=17K, M_(w)=37K. ¹H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 7.40-7.55 (aromatic C—H), 6.96-7.10 (aromatic C—H), 5.90-6.20 (iptycene bridgehead C—H), 5.60-5.78 (olefinic C—H), 5.30-5.45 (olefinic C—H), 4.38-4.55 (aliphatic C—H), 4.15-4.32 (aliphatic C—H), 2.65-3.05 (aliphatic C—H), 2.43-2.58 (aliphatic C—H), 2.18-2.32 (aliphatic C—H), 1.68-1.80 (aliphatic C—H), 1.35-1.68 (aliphatic C—H), 1.10-1.35 (aliphatic C—H), 0.78-0.95 (aliphatic C—H). 8. 1917 NMR (282 MHz, CDCl3): 6 −76.8, −77.0. (two isomers)

P3: (75%) GPC (THF): M_(n)=26K, M_(w)=60K. ¹H NMR (300 MHz, CDCl₃) δ: 7.44-7.52 (aromatic C—H), 6.96-7.09 (aromatic C—H), 6.02-6.14 (iptycene bridgehead C—H), 5.62-5.78 (olefinic C—H), 5.28-5.42 (olefinic C—H), 4.42-4.52 (aliphatic C—H), 2.88-2.98 (aliphatic C—H), 2.75-2.80 (aliphatic C—H), 2.44-2.56 (aliphatic C—H), 2.18-2.30 (aliphatic C—H). 1917 NMR (282 MHz, CDCl3): 8 −76.9, −77.0 (two isomers).

EXAMPLE 12

The photo-physical properties of polymers P1, P2, and P3 were studied and are summarized in Table 1. Polymer P1, a similar PPE of comparable molecular weight, polymer P1, which presents only simple unfunctionalized alkoxy-substituted side-chains, was studied for comparison

Quantum yields and fluorescence lifetimes of polymers P1, P2, and P3 were measured as solutions in CHCl₃. Solution-state fluorescence quantum yields are reported relative to an equi-absorbing solution of quinine sulfate (Φ_(F)=0.53 in 0.1 N H₂SO₄). The reported fluorescence lifetimes are fit to a single-exponential function.

Upon comparing the photo-physical properties of polymers P1, P2, and P3, the pendant HFIP groups do not appear to significantly affect the photo-physical properties of polymers P2 and P3, as they are both similar to polymer P1 in terms of solution and solid-state absorption and emission spectra, as well as solution-state fluorescence quantum yields and fluorescence lifetimes. TABLE 1 Summary of Photophysical Data for Polymers P1, P2, and P3^(a) Abs λ_(max) (nm) Em λ_(max) (nm) Polymer CHCl₃ (film) CHCl₃ (film) Φ_(F) ^(b) τ (ns)^(c) P1 413 (454) 452 (463) 0.51 0.6 P2 413 (445) 452 (462) 0.63 0.5 P3 401 (405) 449 (457) 0.67 0.6

EXAMPLE 13

In order to determine the effect of the pendant HFIP groups on the performance of PPE-based fluorescent chemosensors, FIDO 4TD, a commercial fluorescence-based vapor sensor designed and manufactured by Nomadics Inc. (Stillwater, Okla.), was employed. The Fido sensor measures the real-time fluorescence intensity of a conjugated polymer film as it is exposed to various analyte vapors.

For the FIDO experiments, polymer films of P1, P2, and P3, were spin-cast onto the inside of heavy-walled glass capillaries (Garner Glass Co., Claremont, Calif.) from 1 mg/mL CHCl₃ solutions at 700 rpm for 1 minute, and the emission of the films was monitored while analyte vapors were passed through the capillary. Fluorescence quenching experiments were performed with the following settings: inlet temperature (135° C.), polymer temperature (20° C.), flow rate (35 ccm). Equilibrium vapor pressures of the analytes were delivered to the sensor by placing small quantities (=20 mg) of each analyte, along with a small piece of cotton guaze, into a 20 mL glass vial and capping the vial. At equilibrium, the analyte vapor from the head-space of these vials served as a convenient vapor source for the FIDO experiments. For each polymer, 5-10 spin-coated capillaries were prepared and each was subjected to repeated exposures of each analyte vapor (1 second exposures were used for DNT, 3 second exposures were used for all other analytes). In the cases where the fluorescence response would become saturated from a single exposure, fresh capillaries coated with the polymer would be used each time.

The responses of P1, P2, and P3 to vapors of 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT), 4-aminopyridine (4AP), N,N′-(dimethylamino)pyridine (DMAP), pyridine (PYR), and 2,4-dichloropyrimidine (DCPYRIM) were evaluated by monitoring the change in fluorescence intensity upon drawing analyte vapor through the capillary at a flow rate of 35 mL/min. The equilibrium vapor pressures of the analytes are shown in Table 2. Upon removal of analyte vapor source, ambient air was pulled through the capillary. FIG. 37 shows the average changes in fluorescence emission intensity upon repeated exposures of polymers P1, P2, P3 to equilibrium vapor pressures of various analytes (1 second exposures for DNT, 3 second exposures for all other analytes). A negative response indicates quenching of polymer fluorescence intensity upon exposure to the analyte vapor, while a positive response indicates an increase in polymer fluorescence intensity upon exposure to the analyte vapor. The error bars represent one standard deviation. FIG. 38 shows the (a) real-time fluorescence response of (a) polymer P1 to five separate 3 second exposures to pyridine vapor, (b) polymer P2 to a single 3 second exposure to pyridine vapor, and (c) polymer P3 to a single 3 second exposure to pyridine vapor. TABLE 2 Equilbrium vapor pressure of analytes Analyte Equilibrium vapor pressure 2,4-dinitrotoluene 1.47 × 10⁻⁴ mmHg at 22° C. (0.2 ppm) 4-aminopyridine 3.70 × 10⁻⁴ mmHg at 25° C. (0.5 ppm) N,N′-dimethylamino-pyridine 1.00 mmHg at 25° C. (1300 ppm) pyridine 20.8 mmHg at 25° C. (27000 ppm) 2,4-dichloro-pyrimidine 2.98 × 10⁻¹ mmHg at 25° C. (390 ppm)

The presence of HFIP groups was observerd to generally increase the sensitivity of P2 and P3 relative to P1. The differences were most profound in analytes that display the strongest hydrogen bonding behavior. For example, all three polymers demonstrated similar quenching responses to the weak hydrogen bonding, but strongly electron deficient aromatic analyte, DNT. The very strong electrostatic interaction between this analyte and the electron-rich PPEs appeared to overwhelm any effect of HFIP substitution in polymers P2 and P3. Pyridine, on the other hand, possesses much weaker electrostatic interactions with the PPEs and polymer P1 showed 10-12% increases in fluorescence intensity upon exposure to pyridine vapor as shown in FIG. 38A (5 separate 3 sec. exposures). The increased fluorescence emission intensity was immediately lost upon removal of the pyridine vapor source, likely due to swelling that reduces inter-chain interactions and increases the thin film quantum yield of the polymer. The rapid reversion of the initial fluorescence intensity indicated a fairly weak interaction between polymer P1 and the pyridine vapor. The response of P1 was in stark contrast to that of P2 (FIG. 38B) and P3 (FIG. 38C), which both displayed strong decreases in fluorescence intensity upon exposure to pyridine vapor. Without wishing to be bound by theory, the quenched fluorescence observed upon exposure to pyridine suggests that pyridine forms a hydrogen bond with the HFIP group of polymer P2 or P3, and the hydrogen-bonded pyridinium species is sufficiently electron-deficient to undergo PICT reactions or form charge transfer complexes with the PPE. This observation demonstrates that incorporation of HFIP groups, in addition to enabling more favorable polymer/analyte interactions, can also serve to modulate the electronic properties of some targeted analytes.

The very slow recovery of the initial fluorescence intensity for P2 (FIG. 38B) may be indicative of strong analyte/polymer interactions, as the pyridine vapor appears to adsorb much more strongly to the HFIP substituted polymer P2 and remains bound for a significant period of time after the initial exposure. The FIDO data for polymer P3 (FIG. 38C) revealed even stronger interactions with pyridine, and the fluorescence did not appear to recover after removal of the vapor source. Other analytes such as 4-aminopyridine (4AP) vapor and N,N′-dimethylamino-pyridine (DMAP) vapor appeared to be too electron-rich to undergo PICT reactions with any of the PPEs. From the FIDO data, polymers P1, P2, and P3 were observed to have minimal responses to both 4AP and DMAP. Similar to the responses observed for pyridine, a more electron-deficient analyte, DCPYRIM, also resulted in a significant 20% quenching of fluorescence from the HFIP-substituted polymers P2 and P3, while polymer P1 only demonstrated a minimal quench in fluorescence.

For some embodiments, polymer P2, which demonstrated at least some amount of reversibility in pyridine binding, appeared to be an attractive material for sensing applications since P2 can survive repeated analyte exposures. However, polymer P3, which demonstrated irreversible binding with some analytes (pyridine, 2,4-dichloropyridine, and DNT to some extent), may also be an attractive sensory material for the detection of trace compounds or those with extremely low vapor pressures. For such analytes, a long analyte exposure time could be employed to increase the amount of the adsorbed analyte to higher levels, since the greater HFIP content of P3 makes the analyte desorption process less favorable.

Those skilled in the art would readily appreciate that all parameters listed herein are meant to be exemplary and that actual parameters will depend upon the specific application for which the methods and apparatus of the present invention are used. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described. 

1. A sensor, comprising: a luminescent polymer comprising a hydrogen-bond donor, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is capable of interacting with an analyte to form a complex between the hydrogen-bond donor and the analyte, the complex being capable of interacting with the luminescent polymer and causing the luminescent polymer to signal the presence of the analyte, wherein, in the absence of the hydrogen-bond donor, the analyte is less capable of interacting with the luminescent polymer.
 2. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is capable of forming a hydrogen bond with the analyte to form the complex.
 3. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the complex is a charge transfer complex.
 4. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is covalently bonded to the luminescent polymer.
 5. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is chiral.
 6. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the luminescent polymer comprises a hydrogen-bond donor.
 7. A sensor as in claim 6, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is a group comprising an electron-withdrawing group.
 8. A sensor as in claim 7, wherein the electron-withdrawing group comprises fluorine, nitro, acyl, cyano, or sulfonate.
 9. A sensor as in claim 6, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is a hexafluoroisopropanol group.
 10. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the analyte comprises a heterocycle comprising nitrogen.
 11. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the analyte is 2,4-dinitrotoluene, 4-aminopyridine, N,N′-dimethylamino-pyridine, pyridine, or 2,4-dichloro-pyrimidine.
 12. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the luminescent polymer is a polyarylene, polyarylene vinylene, polyarylene ethynylene, ladder polymer, or substituted derivative thereof.
 13. A method as in claim 1, wherein the luminescent polymer has the structure,

wherein n is at least 1, A and C are optionally substituted aromatic groups, and A and D are alkene, alkyne, heteroalkene, or heteroalkyne.
 14. A sensor as in claim 1, wherein the luminescent polymer has the structure,

wherein R²⁷ and R²⁸ are independently alkyl, heteroalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted derivatives thereof, and n is at least
 1. 15. A sensor as in claim 14, wherein at least one of R²⁷ and R²⁸ comprises the structure,

wherein m is at least
 1. 16. A sensor as in claim 14, wherein at least one of R²⁷ and R²⁸ has the structure,


17. A sensor as in claim 1, further comprising a source of energy applicable to the luminescent polymer to cause emission of radiation; and an emission detector positionable to detect the emission.
 18. A method for determination of an analyte, comprising: providing a luminescent polymer comprising a hydrogen-bond donor; exposing the luminescent polymer to a sample suspected of containing an analyte, wherein the analyte, if present, interacts with the hydrogen-bond donor to cause a change in the luminescence of the polymer; and determining the change in the luminescence of the polymer, thereby determining the analyte, wherein, in the absence of the hydrogen-bond donor, the analyte produces a lower degree of change in the luminescence of the polymer.
 19. A method as in claim 18, wherein the interacting comprises forming a complex between the hydrogen-bond donor and the analyte.
 20. A method as in claim 18, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor forms a hydrogen bond with the analyte to form the complex.
 21. A method as in claim 19, wherein the complex is a charge transfer complex.
 22. A method as in claim 18, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is covalently bonded to the luminescent polymer.
 23. A method as in claim 18, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is chiral.
 24. A method as in claim 18, wherein the luminescent polymer comprises a hydrogen-bond donor.
 25. A method as in claim 18, wherein the analyte has a reduction potential which is made less negative upon its interaction with the hydrogen-bond donor.
 26. A method as in claim 18, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is a group comprising an electron-withdrawing group.
 27. A method as in claim 26, wherein the electron-withdrawing group comprises fluorine, nitro, acyl, cyano, or sulfonate.
 28. A method as in claim 18, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is a hexafluoroisopropanol group.
 29. A method as in claim 18, wherein the analyte comprises a heterocycle comprising nitrogen.
 30. A method as in claim 18, wherein the hydrogen-bond donor is covalently bonded to the luminescent polymer.
 31. A method as in claim 18, wherein the change comprises a decrease in luminescence intensity.
 32. A method as in claim 18, wherein the change comprises an increase in luminescence intensity.
 33. A method as in claim 18, wherein the change comprises a change in the wavelength of the luminescence.
 34. A method as in claim 18, wherein the change is caused by a photoinduced charge transfer reaction between the luminescent polymer and the complex.
 35. A method as in claim 18, wherein the luminescent polymer comprises a first monomer and a second monomer, wherein the first monomer is non-planar with respect to the second monomer. 